Stranded RNA virus particles

ABSTRACT

Recombinant methods for recovering wildtype or engineered negative stranded, non-segmented RNA virus genomes containing non-coding 3&#39; and 5&#39; regions (e.g. leader or trailer regions) surrounding one, several or all of the genes of the virus or one or more heterologous gene(s) in the form of ribonucleocapsids containing N, P and L proteins, which are capable of replicating and assembling with the remaining structural proteins to bud and form virions, or which are only capable of infecting one cell, or are transcribing particles, are disclosed. Novel vaccines, gene therapy vectors and antiviral compounds based on these viral particles are also disclosed.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

The work resulting in this invention was supported in part by certain NIH/NIAID Grants. The U.S. Government may therefore be entitled to certain rights in the invention.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. Ser. No. 08/475,587 filed Jun. 7, 1995 now abandoned, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. Ser. No. 08/316,438 filed Sep. 30, 1994 U.S. Pat. No. 5,716,821.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Virus families containing enveloped, single-stranded, negative sense (3' to 5') RNA are classified into groups having non-segmented genomes (i.e. order Mononegavirales, which includes the Paramyxoviridae and Rhabdoviridae families) or those having segmented genomes (Orthomyxoviridae, Bunyaviridae and Arenaviridae families).

Of the non-segmented viruses, the Rhabdovirus family is perhaps the most common. Rhabdoviruses cause disease and infect vertebrate and invertebrate animals and plants. For example, the rhabdoviruses that cause rabies and economically important diseases of fish appear to have life cycles confined to vertebrate species. However, all other rhabdoviruses are thought to be transmitted to vertebrates and plants by infected anthropods, which may be the original hosts from which all rhabdoviruses evolved. Characteristically, all rhabdoviruses have a wide host range, although many have been adapted to grow in specific hosts and particularly at the ambient temperature of their hosts.

The viruses of the family Rhabdoviridae known to infect mammals, including humans, have been classified into two genera: the Vesiculovirus genus stemming from vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) and the Lyssavirus genus otherwise known as the rabies and rabies-like viruses. The well-characterized viruses of these two genera include: 1) Genus Vesiculovirus--VSV--New Jersey, VSV--Indiana, VSV--Alagoas, Cocal, Jurona, Carajas, Maraba, Piry, Calchaqui, Yug Bogdanovac, Isfahan, Chandi pura, Perinet, Porton-S; and 2) Genus Lyssavirus--Rabies, Lagos bat, Mokola, Duvenhage, Obodhiang and Ko fon Kan.

VSV has a non-segmented negative-stranded RNA genome of 11, 161 nucleotides that encode five viral proteins: The nucleocapsid protein (N), the phosphoprotein (P, also called NS), the matrix protein (M), the glycoprotein (G) and the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L).

The Paramyxovirus family includes the morbilliviruses (e.g., human measles virus, canine distemper virus, rinderpest virus of cattle), the paramyxoviruses (e.g. sendai virus; human para-influenza virus types 1-4; mumps virus; simian virus type 5; and newcastle disease virus) and the pneumoviruses (e.g., human and bovine respiratory syncytial viruses (RSV), pneumovirus of mice and turkey rhinotracheitis virus) genuses.

The pneumovirus human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the major viral cause of serious lower respiratory tract disease (e.g. bronchiolitis and pneumonia) in infants and children. Similarly, bovine respiratory syncytial virus (bRSV) causes respiratory disease in cattle.

RSV have been isolated from a number of mammals including chimpanzee (Morris, J. A., et al., (1956) Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 92, 544-549); humans (Lewis, F. A., et al., (1961) Med. J. Aust., 48, 932-933); cattle (Paccaud, M. F. and C. Jacquier, (1970) Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch, 30, 327-342); sheep (Evermann. J. F., et al., (1985) Am. J. Vet. Res., 46, 947-951); and goats (Lehmkuhl, H. D., et al., (1980) Arch. Virol., 65, 269-276). Human RSV (hRSV) have been classified into two subgroups A and B, which include a number of strains (e.g. A2 and 18537). A number of strains of bovine RSV (bRSV) have also been identified (e.g. A51908 and 391-2).

hRSV genomic RNA is approximately 15.2 kb in length. Transcription of the genome initiates at the 3' extracistronic region and proceeds in a sequential polar fashion to yield 10 mRNAs each encoding a major polypeptide. The hRSV genome also has a 44 nucleotide (nt) leader at the 3' end and a 155 nt noncoding trailer sequence at the 5' end (Mink, M. A., et al., (1991) Virology 185, 615-624). Proceeding from 3' to 5' on the genome, wild type hRSV includes the following 10 genes: NS 1 and NS2 (also referred to as 1C and 1B), which encode two non-structural proteins; N, which encodes the nucleocapsid protein; P, the phosphoprotein; M, the matrix protein; SH, a small hydrophobic protein; G, the attachment glycoprotein; F, the fusion protein; 22K, a second matrix-like protein and L, which encodes the RNA-dependent, RNA polymerase.

Complete nucleotide sequences have been determined for the nine smaller RSV genes (Collins, Peter L., (1991) The Molecular Biology of Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) of the Genus Pneumovirus in The Viruses, Frankel Conrat & Kobert Wagner (ed. David Kingsbury Plenum, New York; Collins, P. L. et. al., (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:9663-9667; Sullender, W. M. et. al., (1991) J. of Virology 65: 5425-5434; Sullender, W. M. et. al., (1990) Virology 178:195-203; Collins, P. L. and G. W. Wertz, (1985) Virology 141:283-291; P. L. Collins and G. W. Wertz,(1985) J. of Virology 54:65-71; Collins, P. L. and G. W. Wertz (1985) Virology 143:442-451; Collins, P. L. et. al., (1985) Virology 146: 69-77; Collins, P. L. et. al., (1984) J. of Virology 49: 572-578; Satake, M. et. al., (1984) Journal of Virology 52: 991-994; Collins, P. L. and G. W. Wertz (1983) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 3208-3212). In addition, a functional cDNA encoding functional RNA-dependent RNA polymerase was identified as described in the Example. This novel cDNA is disclosed herein as SEQ ID NO: 1. Modifications (e.g. base substitutions) of this exact nucleotide sequence can be performed by one of skill in the art and modified sequences can be tested for functional activity using the system for recovering replicable RS virus RNAs entirely from cDNA clones as described in Example 1.

The bRSV genome encodes 10 proteins that correspond closely in size to the hRSV proteins (Lerch, R. A., (1989) Journal of Virology, 63, 833-840). Complete nucleotide sequences have been determined for the N (Amann, V. L., (1992) Journal of General Virology, 73 999-1003); F (Lerch, R. A., et al., (1991) Virology, 181, 118-131) and G (Lerch, R. A. et al., (1990) Journal of Virology, 64, 5559-5569) proteins. cDNA clones corresponding to 9 of the 10 bRSV mRNAs (all but the L protein) have been constructed (Lerch, R. A. et al., (1989) Journal of Virology, 63, 833-840).

Although infectious respiratory disease caused by hRSV infection is responsible for an estimated 2.2 million human deaths annually, the majority in infancy (Pringle, C. R. (1991) Bulletin of the World Health Organization 65:133-137), and bRSV epidemics in cattle (particularly in winter) are of economic significance to the beef industry (Bohlender, R. E., et al., (1982) Mod. Vet. Pract. 63, 613-618; Stott, E. J. and G. Taylor, (1985) Arch. Virol, 84, 1-52; Stott, E. J., et al., (1980) J. Hyg. Vol. 85, 257-270), no effective vaccine against hRSV or bRSV is yet available.

This unfortunate situation is compounded by the fact that maternal antibodies do not confer solid immunity on neonates (Stott, E. J. et. al., (1987) Journal of Virology 60, 607-613) and natural infection affords only partial protection against frequent repeat infections, as immunity to hRSV is complex, involving both antibody and cell-mediated response (Stott, E. J and G. Taylor (1989) Immunity to Respiratory Syncytial Virus p. 85-104. In Immune Responses, Virus Infections and Disease, N. J. Dimmock, and P. D. Minor, (ed.), vol. 27. IRL Press, Oxford).

A disturbing aspect of the immune pathology of hRSV induced respiratory disease was revealed when a formalin inactivated vaccine was tested. Although the vaccine was antigenic and elicited neutralizing antibody, it failed to protect against subsequent infection, and in fact, its use resulted in enhanced frequency and severity of lower respiratory tract disease in children exposed to subsequent reinfection (Fulginiti, V. A. et. al., (1969) American Journal of Epidemiology 89, 435-448 and Kim, H et. al., (1969) American Journal of Epidemiology 89, 422-434). It is still unclear why the formalin inactivated live virus vaccine failed.

Naturally attenuated RSV vaccines have been prepared (for example by serially passaging virulent respiratory syncytial virus in human diploid lung fibroblasts see U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,122,167 and 4,145,252 to Buynak and Hilleman; and/or by cold-passage or introduction of mutations which produce viruses having a temperature sensitive or cold adapted phenotype see WO 93/21320 to Murphy et. al.). However, attenuated RSV live virus vaccines have proven to be poorly infectious and overall ineffective in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus mediated disease.

To address this major health problem, work over the past ten years has focused on the molecular biology of hRSV. cDNAs to all of the RS virus mRNAs have been characterized and used to demonstrate that the negative strand RNA genome of the RS virus possesses 10 genes encoding 10 unique polypeptides (Collins, P. L., Huang, Y. T. and G. W. Wertz (1984) Journal of Virology 49, 572-578). The possession of 10 genes sets RS virus apart from other paramyxoviruses, which have only six or seven genes. The RS virus genes, proceeding in order from 3' to 5' on the genome are: NS1 and NS2, which encode two non-structural proteins; N, which encodes the nucleocapsid protein; P, the phosphoprotein; M, the matrix protein; SH, a small hydrophobic protein; G, the attachment glycoprotein; F, the fusion protein; 22K, a second matrix-like protein and L, which encodes the RNA-dependent, RNA polymerase.

Based on the identification of RSV genes and encoded proteins, a variety of vaccines have been prepared. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,149,650 by Wertz et. al., describes hRSV subunit vaccines comprising recombinant human RSV (rhRSV) structural proteins. U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,254 by Paradiso et. al., describes rhRSV subunit vaccines comprising polypeptides related to a neutralizing epitope, a fusion epitope, or both, of RS virus glycoproteins, including the F and/or G protein of hRSV, as well as viral vaccines encoding the polypeptides. U.S. Pat. No. 5,288,630 by Wathen et. al., describes vaccines made from DNA viruses such as vaccinia expressing an FG rhRSV chimeric protein. However, none of the currently available vaccines have proven to be both safe and effective at immunizing a subject against RSV infection.

Recombinant DNA techniques (including the use of site specific mutagenesis) offer the possibility of designing highly effective vaccines based on RSV whole or partial viral genomes. However, the RNA of negative stranded viruses is not by itself competent to initiate infection or replication (Huang, Y. T., Collins, P. L. and G. W. Wertz (1985) Virus Research 2, 157-173). In virions or intracellularly, RSV RNA is always found tightly encapsidated in a ribonucleoprotein core. This nucleocapsid provides the proteins necessary for transcription and replication and is the minimal unit of infectivity.

Although one group has used recombinant techniques to produce synthetic RSV particles from cDNA (Collins, P. L., et. al., (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 9663-9667), wild type hRSV helper virus was used to provide the proteins required for transcription and replication. Contamination by the wild type helper virus, however, makes this method unsuitable for RSV vaccine preparations. In addition, this system works at low efficiency, so that a reporter gene or strong positive selection is required to detect expression from a virus containing the rescued RNA.

The inventors and co-workers have described a method for recovering an infectious 2.2kb defective interfering particle of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) from a cDNA clone by a method that does not require the presence of wildtype helper virus (Pattnaik, A. K. et. al., (1992) Cell 69:1011-1020).

A means for generating non-segmented, negative sense virus particles that are not contaminated by wild type helper virus would be useful for producing safe and effective vaccines, gene therapy vectors, and antiviral agents.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the invention features negative stranded, non-segmented virus particles, which can be formulated as vaccines, gene therapy vectors or anti-viral agents. At least three different categories of particles can be made, each depending on the inclusion or exclusion of viral genes required for various steps in the replication process (i.e., transcription, genome replication, encapsidation, assembly and release of infectious particles).

One type of non-segmented virus particle, a replicating, spreading virus particle, comprises: i) a non-segmented virus RNA dependent RNA polymerase (L); ii) a non-segmented virus phosphoprotein (P); iii) a non-segmented virus nucleocapsid (N); iv) necessary non-segmented virus structural proteins; v) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence; vi) a 3' to 5' RNA coding region, which encodes the viral proteins required to support viral particle transcription and replication in a newly infected cell and production and assembly of budded infectious particles (i.e. (i)-(iv) above) and optionally includes a heterologous gene (X); and vii) a 5' non-coding RNA sequence. Since these particles can infect cells, replicate their genome, transcribe encoded gene(s), and produce and assemble budded infectious particles, they can effect a long-lasting immunity or gene therapy in a subject.

Another non-segmented virus particle, a replicating, non-spreading virus particle, comprises: i) a non-segmented virus L protein; ii) a non-segmented virus P protein; iii) a non-segmented virus N protein; iv) necessary non-segmented virus structural proteins; v) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence; vi) a 3' to 5' RNA coding region, which encodes the viral proteins required to support viral particle transcription, replication and nucleocapsid assembly in a newly infected cell, but not production and assembly of budded infectious particles (i.e. (i)-(iv) above), and optionally includes a heterologous gene (X); and vi) a 5' non-coding RNA sequence. These particles can infect cells, replicate their genome and transcribe encoded gene(s), which can then be expressed in that cell. However, because they do not encode structural proteins required to produce and assemble budded infectious particles, the particles are incapable of budding off virions and spreading to other cells. These particles are particularly useful as vaccines or gene therapy vectors in applications where it is desirable to control (limit) expression of encoded genes (e.g. antigenic or therapeutic proteins or peptides) by controlling the nuinber of cells infected.

A further non-segmented virus particle, a non-segmented virus transcribing particle, comprises: i) a non-segmented virus L protein; ii) a non-segmented virus P protein; iii) a non-segmented virus N protein; iv) necessary non-segmented virus structural proteins; v) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence, vi) a 3' to 5' RNA coding region which contains an appropriate transcription initiation sequence and a heterologous gene (); and vii) a 5' non-coding RNA sequence. These transcribing particles can transcribe the heterologous gene, but can not replicate in or kill host cells. These particles can therefore be safely used as vaccines and gene therapeutics. In a preferred embodiment, the 3' non-coding sequence is the complement of the 5' non-coding sequence, so that these particles can out-compete wild type virus for proteins required for transcription and replication and therefore can be administered to a subject, for example, as an antiviral agent.

In another aspect, the invention features a novel cDNA encoding a functional respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), RNA dependent, RNA polymerase (L) protein. This cDNA has utility not only in generating recombinant RSV particles, but also in drug screening assays to identify drugs that specifically inhibit or interfere with RSV L protein function and that therefore would function as highly effective antiviral therapeutics for treating respiratory syncytial virus infection.

Recombinant, non-segmented negative stranded virus particles made as described herein are "pure" (i.e., not contaminated by negative strand helper virus). In addition, various types of particles can be formulated in accordance with the intended use. For example, replicating, spreading particles can be formulated and used as vaccines or gene therapy vectors, where widespread and sustained expression of antigenic or therapeutic proteins is desired. Alternatively, replicating, non-spreading particles can be used as vaccines or gene therapy vectors, where limited or controlled expression of antigenic or therapeutic proteins is desired. Transcribing virus particles, on the other hand, can be administered as transient vaccine or gene therapy vectors or as anti-viral agents to interfere and prevent replication of wild-type virus.

Further, particles can be formulated to comprise (and encode) particular non-segmented, negative stranded virus proteins, for example, to optimize target cell specificity or to better accomodate particular heterologous genes. For example, particles comprised of the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) glycoprotein (G) proteins can infect an extremely broad range of animal cells, while particles comprised of Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) G proteins specifically infect lung epithelia. Other features and advantages will be readily apparent from the following detailed description and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic representation of a process for generating replicating, non-spreading Respiratory Syncytial virus (RSV) particles.

FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of a process for generating replicating and spreading RSV particles.

FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic representation of an RSV cDNA wildtype replicon.

FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic representation of an RSV cDNA panhandle replicon, which can be used in making transcribing particles.

FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic representation of a process for generating recombinant Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) particles by transfecting the genome into cells expressing only the three genes, N, P and L. The other genes are encoded in the replicon (pVSV).

FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of the pVSV1(+) replicon and its T7 transcript.

FIG. 7 is a diagrammatic representation of the genome of various VSV particles.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Definitions

As used herein, the following terms and phrases shall have the meanings set forth below:

A "heterologous gene (X)" refers to a nucleic acid molecule that is desired to be transcribed or expressed (i.e. transcribed and translated) from a non-segmented, negative stranded RNA virus particle. As described further below, for vaccine formulations, the heterologous gene preferably encodes a protective epitope of a pathogenic organism. For gene therapy formulations, the heterologous gene preferably encodes a protein that supplements a defective (e.g. mutant) or inappropriately expressed protein in a patient or is an antisense or other biologically active nucleic acid molecule.

A "non-segmented, negative stranded RNA virus" or "non-segmented virus" shall refer to a virus, which contains a negative sense (3'-5') non-segmented RNA genome. Non-segmented viruses are typically classified in the order Mononegavirales, which includes the Paramyxoviridae, Rhabdoviridae and Filoviridae (See Background of the Invention).

"pure" shall mean not contaminated by wild-type virus.

"recombinant" refers to generation by recombinant DNA technology.

A "replicating spreading particle" shall refer to a particle comprised of a non-segmented negative stranded RNA virus genome surrounded by non-segmented negative stranded virus proteins. The particle can enter a cell, transcribe encoded genes to yield messenger RNA (mRNA) to generate proteins, replicate the genomic RNA to produce more genomes and from them to produce more mRNA transcripts and assemble the genomes with proteins to produce viral particles which can then spread to other cells for expanded delivery.

A "replicating non-spreading particle" shall refer to a particle comprised of a non-segmented negative stranded RNA virus genome (which is incomplete) surrounded by non-segmented negative stranded virus proteins. The particle can enter a cell, transcribe encoded genes to yield messenger RNA (mRNA) to generate proteins, replicate the genomic RNA to produce more genomes and from them to produce more mRNA transcripts and assemble the genomes with the proteins to produce viral particles which can not spread to other cells because essential genes for assembly have been omitted from that genome.

A "transcribing particle" shall refer to a particle comprised of cDNA, which includes a heterologous gene and an appropriate transcription initiation sequence and is surrounded by non-segmented negative stranded virus proteins. The particle can infect cells and transcribe an encoded heterologous gene to produce messenger RNAs for expression in that cell, but which cannot replicate to produce more genomes and can not assemble and spread to other cells, because genes for replication and assembly are not included in the cDNA.

In general, replicating and transcribing non-segmented negative strand RNA virus particles can be generated by introducing into a host cell cDNAs which minimally express the following proteins: i) a non-segmented virus RNA dependent RNA polymerase (L) protein, ii) a non-segmented virus nucleocapsid (N) protein; and iii) a non-segmented virus phosphoprotein (P). Preferably, genes encoding the L, N, and P proteins have been introduced into host cells as plasmids under the control of a promoter region that is recognized by a DNA dependent RNA polymerase, which is native to or has been engineered into the host cell. Into the same host cell is introduced a cDNA plasmid which expresses a non-segmented negative strand genome minimally containing the cis acting signals for RNA replication and transcription (a replicon).

FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic representation of a process for generating RSV ribonucleoprotein (RNP) particles, which are capable of replication, but not of budding virions. Additional non-segmented virus structural proteins can be expressed in host cells in the same manner that non-segmented virus N, P, and L proteins are supplied. Alternatively, additional non-segmented virus structural proteins can be encoded in the cDNA encoding the replicon. A preferred method for making these particles is described in detail in the following Example 1.

In order to make particles that are capable of budding and forming infectious progeny virions, necessary non-segmented virus proteins must also be encoded in the replicon and expressed in a host cell. Preferred RSV structural proteins are selected from the group consisting of RSV N, P, M, M2, SH, G or F proteins. Preferred rhabdovirus (e.g., VSV or rabies virus (RV)) structural proteins include M or G proteins. FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of a process for generating pure, infectious and budding non-segmented viral particles.

As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, in a preferred method, cDNA encoding the T7 RNA polymerase is introduced into a host cell using the vaccinia virus-T7 RNA polymerase recombinant (Fuerst, T. R. et al., (1986) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 83, 8122-8126). Plasmids encoding functional proteins (N, P and L) alone (FIG. 1) or in conjunction with structural proteins (FIG. 2) under the control of the T7 promoters are then transfected into the host. Replicons under the control of similar T7 promoters are also transfected into the host cell.

The T7 RNA polymerase transcribes from transfected plasmids the mRNAs to be translated to yield the functional proteins and structural proteins from the replicon cDNA, genomic RNAs with precise termini, which are competent to be replicated and encapsidated to form nucleocapsids. Preferably antigenomic RNAs are expressed in the presence of a pool of nucleocapsid protein and phosphoprotein (i.e. N and P in approximately a 2:1 molar ratio) such that encapsidation of the nascent RNA can begin immediately, thereby enhancing the formation of functional ribonucleoproteins consisting of the RNA and N, P and L proteins.

In a preferred embodiment, the T7 RNA polymerase is expressed from the vaccinia virus strain MVA/T7 Pol recombinant, a highly attenuated and avian host-restricted vaccinia virus recombinant that encodes the T7 polymerase gene (Wyatt, Moss and Rosenblatt, 1995, Virology 210:202-205). Such a vaccinia recombinant is unable to replicate in mammalian cells and hence recovery of viruses from cDNA clones is free not only of helper virus, but also of the recombinant T7 expressing vector.

FIGS. 3 and 4 provide diagrammatic representations of RSV replicons; wildtype (FIG. 3) and panhandle (FIG. 4). For use in the invention, a replicon must include: i) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence, ii) a 3' to 5 RNA coding sequence, and iii) a 5' non-coding sequence. The 3' and 5' non-coding RNA sequences are essential to replication by a non-segmented viral polymerase. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the 5' non-coding sequence can be a trailer sequence (e.g. the RSV 155 nucleotide trailer sequence) and the 3' non-coding sequence can be a leader sequence (e.g. the RSV 44 nucleotide trailer sequence). In general, polymerases of non-segmented viruses are specific to their own leader and trailer sequence.

The replicons shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 employ three basic elements for ensuring intracellular transcription of RNAs with precise termini. A truncated form of the bacteriophage T7 promoter (φ10) immediately followed by a blunt end cloning site with two blunt-ended restriction sites. The promoter distal site is immediately followed by a cDNA copy of the autolytic ribozyme from the antigenomic strand of hepatitis delta virus (HDV) which, in turn, is immediately followed by a T7 terminator element (Tφ). Transcription by the T7 polymerase yields an RNA with two additional nucleotides at the 5' end of the transcript, continuing through the ribozyme and terminating in the Tφ terminator sequence. A precise 3' terminus is generated by the autolytic cleavage of the primary transcript by the HDV genomic RNA at the exact terminus of the RS virus genomic insert.

In between the 3' and 5' non-coding RNA sequences, a replicon contains a 3' to 5' RNA coding region, which includes the viral genes required to support the viral particle transcription, replication and assembly in a newly infected cell plus any heterologous gene (X) desired to be expressed. Each gene encoded in a replicon must have appropriate transcription start and stop signals and intercistronic junctions to signal transcription by the polymerase and subsequent translation to yield protein. Theoretically, there is no limit in the amount of RNA that can be included in the 3' to 5' coding region. In practice, the size of the coding cDNA will be limited by the amount that can be replicated.

An important and essential technical feature for recovering replicating spreading or replicating non-spreading virus particles, in which the 3'-5' coding region comprises a substantial portion of a non-segmented negative stranded RNA virus is the finding that recovery of a complete virus genome into virus particles could only be achieved by expressing a positive (antigenomic) sense copy of the viral RNA, rather than a negative genomic sense RNA as would be expected for a negative sense virus. The requirement for an antigenomic copy may be due to the fact that the RNA polymerase that synthesizes the initial viral RNA in the cell, terminates at each intergenic junction when transcribing a negative sense RNA. However, the polymerase does not terminate at these junctions when transcribing a positive sense RNA. Whether a particular 3'-5' coding region comprising a replicating spreading or replicating non-spreading virus particle must be antigenomic can be determined empirically as described in the following Example 2.

Another technical feature involves the ability to regulate levels of expression of foreign genes inserted into negative strand virus-based vectors by virtue of the location of the genes in the replicon. Control of gene expression in negative strand RNA viruses is a result of a single polymerase entry site at the 3' end of the genome and polymerase dissociation at each intergenic junction. Hence, genes located closest to the 3' end of the genome are transcribed in the greatest amounts and there are decreasing levels of gene expression with increasing distance of a particular gene from the 3' end of the genome. Therefore levels of expression can be increased or decreased by altering the location of the foreign gene insertion relative to the genomic 3' end. Preferred sites of insertion in a VSV genome are shown in FIG. 7.

Eukaryotic cells are preferable "host cells" for producing non-segmented viral particles in vitro. Preferred host cells are mammalian cell lines which are capable of being infected by a non-segmented virus (e.g. HEp-2, HeLa, thymidine kinase deficient (tk-) cells, human embryonic diploid fibroblasts, primary monkey or calf kidney cells, human embryonic kidney, COS, C127, baby hamster kidney (BHK), Vero, LLCMK-2, BSC-1, CV-1, 293 and CHO cells. Non-segmented virus particles comprised of VSV proteins grow to high titers in most animal cells and therefore can be readily prepared in large quantities.

Introduction of replicons into a host cell can be accomplished using standard techniques (e.g. via viral infection, calcium phosphate or calcium chloride co-precipitation, DEAE dextran mediated transfection, lipofection or electroporation). A preferred method of introduction is described in Fuerst, T. R. et. al., (1987) Use of a Vaccinia Virus T7 RNA Polymerase System for Expression of Target Genes. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7:2538-44. Cells expressing the infectious viral particles can be cultured in vitro and the particles can be purified using well-known techniques.

As an alternative to production of non-segmented viral particles by in vitro culture, the particles can also be produced in vivo, for example by introducing appropriate expression systems into an animal host having cells that are capable of being infected by the virus and contain (or have been engineered to contain) functional, non-segmented virus L, N and P proteins.

Vaccines

Using the above-described system for replicating pure populations of infectious non-segmented virus particles, a variety of vaccines can be formulated and administered to a subject to induce an immune response against any of a number of pathogenic infections. Preferred vaccine particles include structural proteins obtained from a non-segmented negative stranded virus that is a non-human pathogen and non-oncogenic (e.g. VSV).

The 3' to 5' coding region of appropriate vaccine candidates will include at least one heterologous gene (X) encoding a protective epitope (i.e. an epitope that elicits an immune response in a subject) of a pathogenic bacterium, virus (e.g. HIV, herpes, hepatitis, RSV, parainfluenza virus 3, measles, mumps, rabies, Ebola, Hanta) fungi (e.g. Candida sp.) or protozoan (e.g. Toxoplasma gondii, ). Table 1 sets forth a representative list of pathogens against which non-segmented viral particle vaccines can be prepared.

                  TABLE 1                                                          ______________________________________                                         Candidate Pathogens for Vaccine Development                                                            CASES PER  INDUS-                                              POTENTIAL       YEAR (AND  TRIAL                                       PATHOGEN                                                                               EFFECTS         DEATHS)    DEMAND                                      ______________________________________                                         Dengue virus                                                                           Fever, shock, internal                                                                         35,000,000 Small,                                              bleeding        (15,000+)  (travelers to                                                                  endemic                                                                        areas)                                      Intestinal-                                                                            Watery diarrhea,                                                                               630,000,000                                                                               Small                                       toxin-  dehydration     (775,000+)                                             producing                                                                      Escherichia                                                                    coli                                                                           bacteria                                                                       Hemophilus                                                                             Meningitis, epiglottal                                                                         800,000    Great                                       influenzae                                                                             swelling, pneumonia                                                                            (145,000+)                                             type b                                                                         bacterium                                                                      Hepatitis A                                                                            Malaise, anorexia,                                                                             5,000,000  Small                                       virus   vomiting, jaundice                                                                             (14,000)                                               Hepatitis B                                                                            Same as hepatitis A;                                                                           5,000,000  Moderate                                    virus   Chronic cirrhosis or cancer                                                                    (822,000)                                                      of liver                                                               Japanese                                                                               Encephalitis, meningitis                                                                       42,000     Small                                       encephalitis            (7,000+)   (Travelers)                                 virus                                                                          Myco-   Leprosy         1,000,000  None                                        bacterium               (1,000)                                                leprae                                                                         Neisseria                                                                              Meningitis      310,000    Some                                        meningitidis            (35,000+)  (during                                     bacterium                          epidemics)                                  Para-   Bronchitis, pneumonia                                                                          75,000,000 Great                                       influenza               (125,000+)                                             viruses                                                                        Plasmodium                                                                             Malaria (with anemia,                                                                          150,000,000                                                                               Moderate                                    protozoa                                                                               systemic inflammation)                                                                         (1,500,000+)                                                                              (travelers)                                 Rabies virus                                                                           Always-fatal meningitis and                                                                    35,000     Small                                               encephalitis    (35,000+)                                              Respiratory                                                                            Repeated respiratory                                                                           65,000,000 Great                                       syncytial                                                                              infections, pneumonia                                                                          (160,000+)                                             virus                                                                          Rotavirus                                                                              Diarrhea, dehydration                                                                          140,000,000                                                                               Great                                                               (873,000+)                                             Salmonella                                                                             Typhoid fever (with platelet                                                                   30,000,000 Small                                       typhi   and intestinal damage                                                                          (581,000+) (travelers)                                 bacterium                                                                              possible)                                                              Shigella                                                                               Diarrhea, dysentery,                                                                           250,000,000                                                                               None                                        bacteria                                                                               chronic infections                                                                             (654,000+)                                             Strepto-                                                                               Throat infection, then                                                                         3,000,000  Small                                       coccus  rheumatic fever, kidney                                                                        (52,000+)                                              Group A disease                                                                bacterium                                                                      Strepto-                                                                               Pneumonia, meningitis,                                                                         100,000,000                                                                               Small to                                    coccus  serious inflammation of                                                                        (10,000,000+)                                                                             moderate                                    pneumoniae                                                                             middle ear                                                             bacterium                                                                      Vibrio  Cholera (with diarrhea,                                                                        7,000,000  Small                                       cholerae                                                                               dehydration)    (122,000+) (travelers)                                 bacterium                                                                      Yellow fever                                                                           Fever, jaundice, kidney                                                                        85,000     Small                                               damage, bleeding                                                                               (9,000+)   (travelers)                                 ______________________________________                                    

Alternatively, non-segmented virus particles can be used to infect an appropriate host cell (in vitro or in vivo) for production of recombinant pathogen protective epitopes, which can then be formulated into a "subunit vaccine".

An "effective amount" of live-virus or subunit vaccine prepared as disclosed herein can be administered to a subject (human or animal) alone or in conjunction with an adjuvant (e.g. as described in U.S. Pat. 5,223,254 or Stott et al., (1984) J. Hyg. Camb. 251-261) to induce an active immunization against a pathogenic infection. An effective amount is an amount sufficient to confer immunity against the pathogen and can be determined by one of skill in the art using no more than routine experimentation. Determination of an effective amount may take into account such factors as the weight and/or age of the subject and the selected route for administration.

A cocktail of infectious virus particles expressing various pathogen protective epitopes can also be prepared as a vaccine composition. Vaccines can be administered by a variety of methods known in the art. Exemplary modes include oral (e.g. via aerosol), intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, parental, transdermal and intranasal routes. If necessitated by a particular mode, the vaccine may be encapsulated.

Gene Therapy Vectors

An important application of this technology is the use of non-segmented virus particles for the transcription or expression of heterologous genes (X) from host (e.g., human or animal) cells. Based on the work described in the following examples, it would appear that even very large genes can be accommodated in non-segmented virus particles. VSV based particles are particularly suitable for accomodating large inserts, since VSV has a helical ribonucleocapsid in which there is a linear relationship between genome length and particle size, suggesting that packaging constraints on the amount of additional nucleic acid are minimal.

Furthermore, the levels of expression of foreign genes in non-segmented virus particles can be regulated both by their location within the genome, as explained above, and by altering the adjacent cis-acting sequences that function as promoters. The following Table 2 is a representative list of genes that can be administered to a subject via non-segmented virus particles to treat a disease.

                  TABLE 2                                                          ______________________________________                                         Gene therapy                                                                   Disease           Therapeutic Gene/Protein                                     ______________________________________                                         IMMUNE DEFICIENCIES                                                            adenosine deaminase deficiency                                                                   adenosine deaminase                                          purine nucleoside phosphorylase                                                                  purine nucleoside phosphorylase                              deficiencies                                                                   osteoporosis      carbonic anhydrase II                                        HEMATOPOIETIC DISORDERS                                                        anemia            erythropoietin                                               thalassemia       α,β thalassemia                                   thrombopenia      thrombopoietin                                               sickle cell disease                                                                              anti-sickling globin                                         SERUM PROTEIN DEFICIENCIES                                                     hemophilia (A & B)                                                                               factor VIII and                                                                factor IX                                                    α-1-antitrypsin deficiency                                                                 α-1-antitrypsin                                        hereditary angioneurotic edema                                                                   C1 esterase inhibitor                                        INBORN METABOLISM ERRORS                                                       urea cycle metabolism                                                                            carbamyl phosphate synthetase,                                                 ornithine transcarbamylase,                                                    argininosuccinate lyase,                                                       arginase                                                     organic disorders propionyl CoA carboxylase,                                                     methylmalonyl CoA mutase                                     phenylketonuria   phenylalanine hydroxylase                                    galactosemia      galactose-1-phosphate uridyl                                                   transferase                                                  homocystinuria    cystathionine β-synthase                                maple syrup urine disease                                                                        branched chain 2-keto acid                                                     decarboxylase                                                STORAGE DISEASES                                                               Fabry's disease   galactosidase                                                Gaucher's disease glucocerebrosidase                                           CNS DISORDERS                                                                  Lesch-Nyhan syndrome                                                                             hypoxantihine phosphoribosyl                                                   transferase                                                  Tay-Sachs disease hexosaminidase                                               FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA                                                  familial hypercholesterolemia                                                                    low-density lipoprotein receptor                             ENDOCRINE DISORDERS                                                            diabetes mellitus insulin                                                      hypopituitarism   growth hormones;                                                               growth factors                                               IMMUNOLOGIC DISORDERS                                                          lymphokine deficiencies                                                                          interleukins; interferons;                                                     cytokines; colony stimulating                                                  factors                                                      OTHER                                                                          Cystic Fibrosis   cystic fibrosis transmembrane                                                  conductance regulator protein                                Duchenne muscular dystrophy                                                                      dystrophin                                                   cancer, tumors, pathogenic infections                                                            antibodies; antibacterial,                                                     antiviral, antifungal                                                          and antiprotozoal agents;                                                      multidrug resistance and                                                       superoxide dismutase                                         wound healing     transforming growth factors                                  ______________________________________                                    

Alternative to encoding proteins or peptides, non-segmented virus gene therapy vectors can contain antisense oligonucleotides or other nucleic acid biological response modifiers.

A particular non-segmented virus particle can be selected for a particular gene therapy based on the tropism of the natural, wildtype virus. For example, with VSV, target cell specificity is mediated by the attachment of glycoprotein G, which permits the infection of virtually all animal cells that have been studied.

Natural respiratory syncytial virus specifically, on the other hand, only infects respiratory tract tissue (e.g. lung epithelia). Based on this natural affinity, RSV particles can be used as gene therapy vectors for delivery to a subject's respiratory tract. In a preferred embodiment, the protein expressed from an RSV based particle has bioactivity in a subject's lung. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the protein is selected from the group consisting of: the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein or a functional fragment thereof, an anti protease (e.g. alpha-1-antitrypsin), a tissue inhibitor of metaloproteinase, an antioxidant (e.g., superoxide dismutase), a cytokine (e.g., an interferon), a mucolytic (e.g., DNAse); or a protein which blocks the action of an inflammatory cytokine.

An "effective amount" of a gene therapy vector prepared from a non-segmented viral particle can be administered to a subject (human or animal). An effective amount is an amount sufficient to accomplish the desired therapeutic effect and can be determined by one of skill in the art using no more than routine experimentation. Determination of an effective amount may take into account such factors as the weight and/or age of the subject and the selected route for administration.

Gene therapy vectors can be administered by a variety of methods known in the art. Exemplary modes include oral (e.g. via aerosol), intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, parenteral, transdermal and intranasal routes. If necessitated by a particular mode, the gene therapy vector may be encapsulated.

In addition to being prepared as a gene therapy pharmaceutical, infectious non-segmented virus particles can be used to infect an appropriate host cell to produce the recombinant protein in vitro (e.g. in a cell culture) or in vivo (e.g. in a transgenic animal).

ANTI-VIRAL AGENTS

Transcribing Particles

Defective interfering particles are subgenomic virus particles (lacking greater or lesser percentages of the virus genome). They contain virus structural proteins and antigens. DI particles require homologous parental (wildtype) virus for replication and replicate preferentially at the expense of helper virus, thereby causing interference. Defective interfering particles can also enhance interferon production, modulate surface expression of viral proteins, affect their transport, processing and turnover, and alter the timing and basic pathology of a virus infection in vivo (Holland, John J., Defective Interfering Rhabdoviruses, Dept. of Biology, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, Calif. 92093, Chapter 8, pp. 297-360).

As described in detail in the following Example, defective interfering-like particles, replicating particles have been made using the panhandle RSV replicon shown in FIG. 4. The panhandle construct contains an authentic 5' terminus and its complement at the 3' terminus as found in copy-back DI RNAs of other negative strand viruses. These replicating particles can out-compete wild type virus for proteins required for transcription and replication and therefore can be administered to a subject as an antiviral agent.

Other replicating and transcribing particles can comprise: i) a non-segmented virus L protein; ii) a non-segmented virus P protein, iii) a non-segmented virus N protein, iv) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence, v) a 3' to 5' RNA coding region, which contains an appropriate transcription initiator and encodes a heterologous gene, and vi) a 5' non-coding RNA sequence can be designed. Preferable replicating and transcribing particles, (i.e. transcribing particles with the greatest replicative advantage) maximize the extent of terminal complementarity between the 3' and 5' non-coding sequences and still maintain a transcription start site. Work with copy-back like VSV particles, has shown that the extent of complementarity, rather than their exact sequence, is a major determinant of whether a template predominantly directs transcription or replication (Wertz, G. et al., (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,, 91, 8587-8591).

Drug Screening

Effective antiviral drugs specifically prevent or neutralize viral infectivity without affecting host cells. Because the RNA dependent RNA polymerase performs a function unique to negative stranded RNA viruses, a drug that could interfere with the function would be a useful therapeutic against RSV mediated disease. Host cells expressing RSV RNA dependent RNA polymerase as described herein can be used as screens to test various drug candidates for anti- respiratory syncytial virus activity. For example, one can infect cells with VVTF7-3, transfect in the plasmids for N,P,L and suitable RSV mini genomes and measure the effect of drugs on RSV specific RNA replication and transcription, for example, using suitable radiolabelling techniques. This could be accomplished as a screen in cells in culture.

An "effective amount" of an antiviral compound, such as a defective interfering particle or drugs specifically interfering with the replication or transcription of a non-segmented virus, can be administered to a subject (human or animal). An effective amount is an amount sufficient to alleviate or eliminate the symptoms associated with viral infection. The effective amount for a particular antiviral agent can be determined by one of skill in the art using no more than routine experimentation. Determination of an effective amount may take into account such factors as the weight and/or age of the subject and the selected route for administration.

Antiviral agents can be administered by a variety of methods known in the art. Exemplary modes include oral (e.g. via aerosol), intradermal, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, parental, transdermal and intranasal routes. If necessitated by a particular mode, the gene therapy vector may be encapsulated.

The present invention is further illustrated by the following examples, which should not be construed as limiting in any way. The contents of all cited references (including literature references, issued patents, published patent applications, and co-pending patent applications) cited throughout this application are hereby expressly incorporated by reference.

EXAMPLE 1

Functional cDNA Clones of RSV N, P and L Proteins Support Replication of RSV Genomic RNA Analogs and Define Minimal Trans-acting Requirements for Replicating

Materials and Methods

Construction of Full Length cDNAs Encoding the RS Virus N, P and L Proteins

All procedures and reaction conditions for plasmid constructions were carried out according to standard methods (Sambrook et al., (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.). The plasmid constructs were verified by DNA sequence determination of the relevant regions by the dideoxy chain termination method using denatured plasmid DNA as templates (Haltiner, M. et al., (1985) Nucleic Acids Research 1015-1028).

In order to express RS virus proteins in the VVT7 based reverse genetic analysis system, cDNA clones of the RS virus N, P and L genes were cloned into pGEM3 vectors downstream of the T7 RNA polymerase promoter, the clones were designated pRSV-N, pRSV-P and pRSV-L, respectively. Briefly, pRSV-N was prepared by transferring a BamHI-PstI fragment containing the entire N gene from pAQ330 (King et al., (1987) Journal of Virology 61, 2885-2890) into a pGEM3 vector. cDNA encoding the P protein was generated by reverse transcription of RS virus genomic RNA, followed by PCR amplification with a pair of oligonucleotide primers corresponding to nt positions 2328-2349 and 3459-3443 of the genome (Galinski 1991), respectively. The cDNA was then cloned into the Kpnl-BamHI site of pGEM3. Because of the size of the L gene, (6,578 nt, Stec et al., (1991) Virology 183, 273-287), the full-length L gene clones were constructed through several steps of subcloning and finally by assembling four exchangeable segments. Segment 1 (Kpnl-MspI fragment, positions 1-1906 in the L gene), segment 2 (MspI-PflMI fragment, positions 1907-3795) and segment 4 (MunI-PstI fragment, positions 5547-6732) were prepared by reverse transcription and PCR amplification, using three pairs of oligonucleotide primers corresponding to nt positions 1-17 and 1923-1903, 1881-1902 and 3802-3788, and 5420-5441 and 6732-6700 of the L gene, respectively. Segment 3 (PflMI-MunI fragment) came from an existing clone pRSVL-35 which was prepared by oligo-dT primed cDNA synthesis (Collins and Wertz (1983) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 80, 3208-3212). The originally assembled clone yielded a 170 KDa polypeptide on translation. Sequencing analysis revealed that an adenosine residue at nt position 4762 of the L gene had been deleted, resulting in a frame-shift generating a premature stop codon 48 nt downstream of the deletion. This sequence error was repaired by site directed mutagenesis.

Generation of cDNA Clones Encoding RS Virus Genomic Analogs

cDNA clones that transcribe two types of RS virus genomic analogs were constructed. The first type (wild-type) contained the authentic 3' and 5' termini of the genome, but deleted the majority of the internal genes, and the second type (Panhandle-type) contained complementary termini, derived from the 5' terminus of the genome, surrounding a partial L gene. Diagrams of these two analogs are shown in FIGS. 1 and 2.

The wild -type analog plasmid (pWT) was prepared as follows: cDNA containing the 3' leader, 1C, 1B, N and part of P genes was synthesized by reverse transcription and followed by PCR amplification with a pair of oligonucleotide primers corresponding to nt positions 1-29 and 2378-2360 of the genome. A 2.3 kb PCR product was cloned into the KpnI-SalI site of pGEM3, and the resulting plasmid was digested with SacI and MunI to release a 0.4kb fragment containing the 3' 44-nt leader and nucleotides 1-375 of the 1C gene. Consequently, this SacI-MunI fragment was fused with a MunI-PstI fragment containing nucleotides 5547-6578 (1031-nt) of the L gene and 155-nt trailer, which was derived from pRSV-L, and cloned into pGEM3. The resulting clone was digested with BsiWI and the termini of the released 1.6kb BsiWI fragment repaired by partial filling with dGTP, dTTP, Klenow (BRL), followed by mung bean nuclease digestion. This generated a blunt-ended DNA fragment whose terminal sequences precisely matched the authentic termini of the RS virus genome. This fragment was then inserted into the SmaI site of a transcription plasmid between the T7 promoter and the antigenomic-strand of hepatitis delta virus (HDV) autolytic ribozyme followed by T7 terminator sequences (Ball, L. A. et al., (1992) Journal of Virology 66, 2335-2345.). In this sequence context, the wild-type RNA analog synthesized by the T7 RNA polymerase was predicted to contain two non RS virus GTP residues at the 5' end and, after autolytic cleavage, an exact terminus corresponding to the authentic genome 3' end.

The panhandle-type analog (pPH) was derived from the trailer region and the L gene end sequences. A 1.2kb Munl-PstI fragment containing the L gene 5' end and the trailer region was isolated from pRSV-LS4 and fused with an ApoI-PstI fragment comprising 75 nucleotides of the extreme 5' end of the trailer, and subsequently cloned into the PstI site of pGEM3. The resulting clone was treated the same as described in the wild-type analog construction and finally transferred into the Smal site of the intracellular transcription plasmid. Therefore, the T7 transcripts from the panhandle type analog plasmid were predicted to contain, after autolytic cleavage, complementary 75-nt termini derived from the trailer, surrounding the 1031-nt L gene end.

Virus Infections and DNA Transfections 293 cells were grown in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (D-MEM, GIBCO Laboratories) containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FB S) in 60 mm plates. A subconfluent cell monolayer (about 3×10⁶ cells per plate) was infected with recombinant vaccinia virus vT7-3 (moi of 10 pfu per cell) that expresses T7 RNA polymerase. After 45 minutes virus absorption, the cells were washed once with D-MEM (without FBS) and then transfected with appropriate plasmid DNAs using lipofectin according to manufacturer's (Bethesda Research Laboratories) instructions. For protein expression, the cells were transfected with 5 μg of pRSV-N, pRSV-P or pRSV-L individually or simultaneously, whereas for RNA replication assay, the cells were transfected with 5 μg of pPH3 or pWT1, and combinations of 5 μg of pRSV-N, 2 μg of pRSV-P and 0.25-2.0 μg of pRSV-L. The transfected cells were then incubated in D-MEM (without FBS) 37° C. for 12-16 hours before labeling with radioisotopes.

Immunoprecipitation and Electrophoretic Analysis of Proteins

For radiolabeling of expressed proteins, at 12 hours posttransfection the cells were incubated in methionine-free medium (GIBCO Laboratories) for 45 minutes and then exposed to ³⁵ S!methionine (20 μCi/ml, Du Pont/NEN) for 3 hours. Cytoplasmic extracts of cells were prepared and viral specific proteins were immunoprecipitated as described previously (Pattnaik, A. K. and G. W. Wertz, (1990) Journal of Virology 64, 2948-2957) by using goat polyclonal antiserum raised against RS virus (Chemicon International). For detecting expression of the L protein, rabbit antisera raised against the L protein specific peptides (three peptides corresponding to amino acid positions 1696-1713, 1721-1733 and 2094-2110, respectively, Stec et al., (1991) Virology 183, 273-287) were synthesized by the UAB Protein Synthesis Core Facility, conjugated to KLH and antiserum raised in rabbit by Lampire Biological Laboratories, Inc. A combination of the anti-L-peptide sera was used for immunoprecipitation of the L protein. Immunoprecipitated proteins were analyzed by electrophoresis on 10% polyacrylamide gels and detected by fluorography as described previously (Pattnaik, A. K. and G. W. Wertz, (1990) Journal of Virology 64, 2948-2957).

Analysis of RNA Replication

To analyze RNA replication, cells were exposed to ³ H!uridine (25 uCi/ml, Du Pont/NEN) between 16-24 hours posttransfection, in the presence, where indicated, of actinomycin D (10 μg/ml, water-soluble mannitol complex; Sigma Chemical Co.) after 30 minutes actinomycin D pretreatment. Cells were harvested and cytoplasmic extracts prepared as described previously. Either total RNA or N-protein encapsidated RNA selected by immunoprecipitation with the goat antiserum, was extracted and analyzed by electrophoresis on 1.75% agarose-urea gels and detected by fluorography (Wertz, G. W. and N. Davis (1981) Nucleic Acids Research 9, 6487-6503).

RNA Protection Assay of Replication Products

An RNA protection assay (RPA) was used to detect strand-specific RNA synthesis using an RPA II kit according to manufacturer's instructions (Ambion). Briefly, N-protein encapsided RNAs from one 60 mm plate of cells transfected with pPH3 and the N, P or N, P and L protein plasmids as described above (without radiolabeling and actinomycin D treatment) were selectively enriched by immunoprecipitation and were used in RPA for each reaction. A strand-specific RNA probe was generated by T7 RNA polymerase in vitro transcription of a pGEM3 plasmid with incorporation of ³⁵ S! UTP (Du Pont/NEN) according to the manufacturer's instructions (New England Biolabs). The pGEM3 plasmid containing a Bc1I-Bg1II fragment of the L gene end (positions 5655-6514) was linearized by digestion with SspI, the cleavage site for which is present in the Bc1I-Bg1II fragment (position 6158), so that run off T7 polymerase transcription produced a 391-nt RNA probe. The RNA probe was purified by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The specific activity of the purified probe was determined and 6×10³ cpm of probe was used in each reaction of the assay. The protected RNA was analyzed by electrophoresis on 4.5% sequencing gels and detected by fluorography.

RESULTS

Expression of RS Virus Proteins

In order to establish a reverse genetic approach for analysis of RS virus, it was necessary to prepare cDNA clones capable of expressing the RS virus proteins involved in RNA replication. By analogy with other negative-stranded RNA viruses, these would most likely be the N, P and L proteins, although at the outset it was unknown whether the nonstructural proteins 1C and 1B might also be required. Full-length cDNA clones of the N, P and L genes were prepared as described and subcloned into the expression vector pGEM3. To detect whether these cDNA clones expressed N, P and L proteins, the recombinant vaccinia virus-T7 RNA polymerase expression system was used. (Fuerst, T. R. et al., (1986) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 83, 8122-8126). 293 cells were infected with vTF7-3 and transfected with plasmids pRSV-N, pRSV-P, or pRSV-L. At 12 hours posttransfection, the cells were labeled with ³⁵ S!methionine for 3 hours. Cytoplasmic extracts were prepared, and proteins were immunoprecipitated with anti-RS virus antibody in the case of the N and P proteins, or anti-L-peptide antisera in the case of the L protein, and analyzed by electrophoresis.

vTF7-3 infected cells transfected with pRSV-N expressed a protein which comigrated with the authentic N protein synthesized in RS virus infected cells. Similarly, vTF7-3 infected cells transfected with pRSV-P also expressed a protein which comigrated with the authentic P protein. Neither untransfected nor uninfected cells produced these proteins, suggesting that pRSV-N and pRSV-P expressed the appropriate viral proteins.

A cDNA clone containing the L gene constructed as described above was transfected into vTF7-3 infected cells. The total expressed products were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and a polypeptide with a molecular weight of 170 kDa was observed, but not the expected 250 kDa polypeptide. Sequencing analysis revealed that an adenosine residue at nt position 4762 of the L gene had been deleted, resulting in a frame-shift which generated a premature stop codon 48 nt downstream of the deletion. The sequence error was repaired by restoring the A residue by site-directed mutagenesis. A corrected L gene cDNA clone was constructed and expressed in the same system. In order to detect the L protein, rabbit anti-L-peptide sera were prepared and used to immunoprecipitate the products of expression. The results showed that a polypeptide of 250 Kd expressed from the repaired L gene clone was identified by the anti-L-peptide sera, which comigrated with the authentic L protein. A few faint bands migrating faster than the L protein were also observed, which might be the products derived from late initiations of translation, or degradation of the L protein. This work demonstrated that the corrected full-length L gene clone was capable of directing synthesis of authentic size RS virus L protein. Consequently, this cDNA clone was used in RNA replication experiments to test whether the expressed L protein was a functional polymerase.

Expression of Genomic RNA Analogs

To establish the reverse genetic analysis system, cDNA clones that transcribed two types of RS virus genomic RNA analogs were constructed. As shown in FIG. 1, the wild-type cDNA clone, pWT1, encoded an analog of RS virus genomic RNA in which the majority of the internal genes were deleted. Transcription of pWT1 by T7 RNA polymerase would yield a 1605-nt long, negative-sense RNA with the authentic 3' terminus of the RS virus genome, created by the autolytic cleavage of the ribozyme, and the following structural features (listed in 3' to 5' order): (i) the 44-nt leader region; (ii) nt 1-375 of the 1C gene; (iii) nt 5547-6578 (1031-nt) of the L gene; (iv) the 155-nt trailer region and (v) two non RS virus GTP residues encoded by the vector. Similar to pWT1, the panhandle-type cDNA clone, pPH3, encoded an RS virus genomic analog in which most of the internal genes had been deleted.

However, in contrast to pWTl, pPH3 contained DI-like termini, i.e., complimentary termini surrounding a partial L gene (FIG. 2). As with pWT1, the panhandle-type genomic analog sequences were also placed in the transcription plasmid under T7 promoter control and followed by the HDV ribozyme and T7 terminator. T7 RNA polymerase transcription of pPH3 would produce 1261 -nt long negative-sense RNA consisting of the 155-nt trailer at the 5' end, 75-nt of the trailer's complement at the 3' end and 1031 -nt L gene end in the middle. After autolytic cleavage, the 3' end of the panhandle-type RNA analog should be exactly complementary to the authentic 5' end of the genome.

To examine the ability of these two constructs to generate transcripts of the appropriate length in 293 cells, pWT1 and pPH3 were transfected in to vTF7-3 infected cells, respectively, and RNAs were labeled with ³ H!uridine for 8 hours at 16 hours posttransfection. The total cytoplasmic RNA species synthesized during this period was analyzed by electrophoresis on agarose-urea gel. A major species of labeled RNA of 1.6 Kb from the pWT1 transfected sample and 1.2 Kb from the pPH3 transfected sample was observed, but not in vTF7-3 infected only and the uninfected cells. The minor bands migrating slightly slower than the major negative-sense RNA transcripts were RNA that had not undergone the autolytic cleavage by the time of analysis. The identity of these cleaved and uncleaved transcripts was confirmed later by comparison with the cleaved and uncleaved transcripts from the same plasmids generated by in vitro transcription. More than 90% of the transcripts synthesized during the labeling period was cleaved by the ribozyme, releasing a 200 base RNA that contained the ribozyme and terminator sequences and that migrated near the bottom of the gel.

Encapsidation and Replication of Genomic RNA Analogs

The active template for RNA synthesis by negative-strand RNA viruses is the RNA in the form of a ribonucleocapsid. To determine whether the RNAs transcribed in cells by T7 polymerase could be encapsidated with the nucleocapsid protein and replicated, vTF7-3-infected cells were transfected with pWT1 or pPH3 and combinations of plasmids encoding the N, P and L proteins. At 16 hours posttransfection, the cells were exposed to ³ H!uridine for 6 hours. Encapsidated and replicated RNAs were selected by immunoprecipitation and analyzed on an agarose-urea gel. Immunoprecipitation of 3H! labeled RNA by anti RS virus polyclonal serum demonstrated that encapsidation of WT and PH type RNA analogs occurred when pRSV-N, pRSV-P and pRSV-L were cotransfected. However, in the absence of pRSV-L, encapsidated RNA was barely detected. These results suggested that only a small percentage of the original T7 negative-sense RNA transcripts was encapsidated and that the majority of the encapsidated RNA arose from replication of the original transcripts by the RS virus polymerase. To test whether the labeled and encapsidated RNA was replicated by the RS virus RNA dependent RNA polymerase, the effect of actinomycin D on synthesis and encapsidation of RNA was analyzed. Actinomycin D inhibits DNA dependent RNA synthesis, but not RNA dependent RNA synthesis.

In the presence of actinomycin D, incorporation of ³ H ! uridine into RS virus genomic analog was completely blocked when only pRSV-N and pRSV-P were present in the cotransfection. However, when pRSV-L was included in the cotransfection, synthesis of the genomic analog was resistant to the drug and readily detected. The results demonstrated that the RNAs were indeed the products of replication by the RS virus polymerase. The majority of encapsidated RNAs represent the replicated RNAs However, the amount of RNA replicated from the wild-type genomic analog is much less than that from the panhandle one, although a similar molar ratio of plasmids was used in the transfection. Due to its higher RNA replication efficiency, the panhandle type analog pPH3 was used as a model to determine the trans-acting protein requirements for RNA replication and to detect the strand-specific RNA synthesis.

The N, P and L Proteins are the Minimal Trans-Acting Protein requirements for RNA Replication

To determine the minimal trans-acting protein requirements for RS virus genomic RNA replication, and to optimize the conditions of RNA replication, pPH3 transfected-cells were cotransfected with various combinations of plasmids encoding the N, P and L proteins. At 16 hours posttransfection, the cells were labeled with ³ H!uridine in the presence of actinomycin D for 6 hours. The RNAs extracted from cell lysates were analyzed by electrophoresis on an agarose-urea gel. The results clearly showed that any combination of two of these three plasmids in the cotransfection did not support RNA replication. Only when all three plasmids were present in the cotransfection did replication of the panhandle-type RNA analog occur. This clearly defined that the N, P and L proteins were the minimal trans-acting protein requirements for RNA replication of the RS virus genomic analog. As the amount of pRSV-L was increased from 0.25 μg-1 μg in the cotransfection, the yield of replicated RNA products also increased. However, when 2 μg of pRSV-L was cotransfected, the efficiency of replication no longer increased. Maximum RNA replication occurred when the molar ratio of transfected N, P and L genes was 12:5:1.

To test the specificity of the requirement for the viral RNA dependent RNA polymerase for RS virus RNA replication, a VSV L gene plasmid that had been shown to support VSV RNA replication in a similar system (Pattnaik, A. K. et. al., (1992) Infectious defective interfering particles of VSV from transcripts of a cDNA clone. Cell 69:1011-1020; Wertz, G. et al., (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,, 91, 8587-8591) and atruncated form of RS virus L gene plasmid that expressed a 170 kDa polypeptide were used to replace pRSV-L in the cotransfection. Neither the heterologous VSV RNA polymerase nor the truncated RS virus polymerase supported RNA replication. These data demonstrate that the RNA replication of the genomic analog indeed requires RS virus specific and functional polymerase.

RNase Protection Assay Demonstrates the Synthesis of Positive-Strand RNA

During RNA replication of negative-stranded RNA viruses, the encapsidated negative sense genome must first replicate a positive sense RNA antigenome, which in turn would be encapsidated and serve as a template for the synthesis of progeny negative-sense RNA. Therefore, the synthesis of a positive-strand intermediate is critical evidence for establishing that replication of the original negative-strand RNA has occurred. To test RS virus positive-strand RNA synthesis, an RNase protection assay was carried out with a strand-specific probe. Encapsidated RNA was selected by immunoprecipitation from cells cotransfected with pPH3 and combinations of the N, P and L gene plasmids. A 391-nt long, ³⁵ S!-labeled RNA probe was used, of which 360 nucleotides were transcribed from the L gene sequences and complementary to the positive-sense RNA, and the other 31 nucleotides corresponded to the polylinker region of the vector. Hybridization of the probe with the positive-strand RNA should produce a double strand RNA hybrid which, after nuclease digestion to remove the overhanging nucleotides, would be 360 base pairs long.

Indeed, electrophoretic analysis of the protected RNA products demonstrated that the positive-strand RNA was synthesized when all three viral N, P and L gene plasmids were cotransfected, but not in the absence of the L gene plasmid in the cotransfection. This protected RNA product migrated at the predicted size (360 nt). The undigested probe (391 nt) hybridized with yeast RNA and was completely degraded following treatment with RNase, thus indicating that the nuclease digestion was complete. These data demonstrated that positive-strand RNA was replicated from the initial negative sense RNA transcribed in cells, and confirmed that RNA replication occurred only when all three viral proteins, N, P and L were provided by cotransfection. The presence of positive-sense RNA was also confirmed by primer extension analysis with a negative-sense oligonucleotide primer.

EXAMPLE 2

Recovery of Infectious VSV Entirely from cDNA Clones

Materials and Methods

Plasmid construction and transfections

A full length cDNA clone of VSV was assembled from clones of each of the VSV genes and intergenic junctions, using standard cloning techniques (Sambrook, J. et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2d ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York). Whenever possible, clones that were known to encode functional VSV proteins were used for the construction. These clones were assembled into a full length cDNA and inserted in both orientations between the bacteriophage T7 promoter and a cDNA copy of the self cleaving riobzyme from the antigenomic strand of HDV. The resulting plasmids were named pVSV1(+) and pVSV1(-) to reflect the polarity of the T7 transcript they generated: VSV anti-genomic or genomic RNA respectively. The T7 transcripts contained two non-VSV nucleotides (GG) at their 5' end but were cleaved by the HDV riobzyme to generate a 3' terminus which corresponded precisely to the 3' end of the VSV antigenomic (FIG. 5) or genomic sequence.

Transfection of plasmids into BHK1 cells infected with vTF7-3 was performed using the conditions and quantities of support plasmids described previously (Pattnaik, A. K. et al. (1992) Cell 69, 1011-1020), and up to 5 μg of the plasmids pVSV1(+) or pVSV1(-). Transfected cells were incubated at either 31° C. or 37° C. For some experiments, the pVSV1(+) and pVSV1(-) plasmids were linearized by digestion at a unique NheI site located downstream of the T7 terminator in the pGEM3 based plasmids. RNAs made by run-off transcription from these linearized DNAs still contained the HDV ribozyme whose production of a perfect 3' end by self-cleavage is essential for VSV RNA replication (Pattnaik, A.K. et al. (1992) Cell 69, 1011-1020). All experiments involving pVSV1(+) were performed in a newly constructed building, in a laboratory in which wild-type VSV had never been used.

To identify cDNA-derived virus unambiguously, several genetic markers were incorporated into the full length cDNA clones. All 5 genes were of the Indiana serotype of VSV, but whereas the N, P, M and L genes originated from the San Juan strain, the G gene (kindly provided by Elliot Lefkowitz) was from the a Orsay strain. In addition the functional P clone has 28 nucleotide sequences differences from the published San Juan sequence and in the case of pVSV 1(+) the 516 nucleotides at the 5' end of the VSV genome originated from pDI, the clone of DI-T RNA (Pattnaik, A. K. et al. (1992) Cell 69, 1011-1020). This region contained several nucleotide differences from the published VSV Indiana San Juan sequence. Specifically the nucleotide differences G11038A, A11070C, and an insertion of an A residue at nucleotide 11140 were used to unambiguously distinguish cDNA-derived virus.

To examine the behavior of T7 RNA polymerase at a VSV intergenic junction, a Bg1II fragment that encompassed the NP intergenic junction of VSV (nucleotides 1236-1685) was inserted in both orientations into the unique Bg1II site of plasmid 8 (Wertz, G. W. et al (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 8587-8591). This plasmid contained 210 nucleotides form the 3' end of VSV RNA and 265 nucleotides from the 5' end, joined at a unique Bg1II site and placed between the T7 promoter and the HDV ribozyme. A positive-sense version of plasmid 8 was generated and used to accommodate the NP intergenic junction sequence in an identical manner. These plasmids were named 8(-) and 8(+) to reflect the polarity of the T7 transcript they generated, with an additional suffix to indicate whether the NP intergenic junction was in the natural (NP) or inverted (PN) orientation with respect to the surrounding VSV sequences (see FIG. 5).

Virus Production and Neutralization

The medium from transfected cells was harvested at 15 to 48 hours post transfection, clarified by centrifugation (14 000×g for 5 minutes), and virus titers were monitored by plaque assay on BSC40 cells in the presence of 25μg per ml cytosine arabinoside (ara-c), to inhibit replication of VV. Neutralization assays of virus were performed by incubation with a mouse polyclonal serum raised against purified VSV, by incubation with antiserum for 30 minutes at room temperature in DMEM. This approach also allowed titration of VV, by plaque assay in the absence of ara-c.

Virus Characterization

Virus amplification, radioactive labeling of RNA with ³ H!uridine (33μCi per ml; 1 Ci=37 GBq) and proteins with ³⁵ S! methionine (10μCi per ml) or ³ H!leucine (50μCi per ml) and their electrophoretic analyses were performed as described previously (Pattnaik, A. K. et al. (1990) J. Virol. 64, 2948-2957). Viral RNA was purified from 10⁸ pfu of amplified cDNA-derived VSV and reverse transcribed using AMV reverse transcriptase (Life Sciences) and a primer that annealed to negative-sense RNA at nucleotides 11026-11043 of the VSV genome. Approximately 1/10th of this reaction was used for DNA amplification by PCR. PCR reactions were carried out using the primer described above and a second primer that annealed to the extreme 3' end of positive-sense VSV RNA (nucleotides 11161-11144). PCR products were cloned and sequenced using standard techniques (Sambrook, J. et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York).

In Vitro Transcription

RNA was generated in vitro using T7 RNA polymerase (GIBCO-BRL) according to manufacturer's instructions, except that rNTP concentrations were elevated to 2.5 mM, and supplemented with ³ H! UTP (80μCi per ml). The RNA products of in vitro transcription were resolved by electrophoresis on 1 % agarose-urea gels and visualized by fluorography. It should be noted that RNA mobility in the pH 3.0 agarose-urea gels is a function of base composition as well as size (Lerach, H., (1977) Biochemistry, 16, 4743-4751).

RESULTS

Construction of a Full Length cDNA Clone of VSV and Recovery of Infectious Virus

A full-length cDNA of the RNA genome of VSV was assembled from clones of each of the five VSV genes and their intergenic regions and inserted into a pGEM3 based transcription plasmid between the T7 promoter and the HDV ribozyme (FIG. 6). Plasmids containing the cDNA in both orientations were constructed and designated PVSV1(+) and pVSV1(-) to reflect the polarity ofthe T7 transcript they generated: VSV anti-genomic or genomic RNA respectively. pVSV1(+) was transfected into BHK21 cells that expressed T7 RNA polymerase from a VV recombinant, together with T7 transcription plasmids that separately encoded the VSV N, P, and L proteins. These latter three "support" plasmids provided sources of the VSV proteins necessary to support encapsidation of the primary naked transcript, and to provide a source of polymerase for replication and transcription of this RNA. Control transfections included cells that received pVSV1(+) but no support plasmids, and cells that received the support plasmids but no pVSV1(+). After incubation at 31°or 37° C., the culture media were harvested, diluted and monitored by plaque assay for the presence of infectious VSV. Infectious virus was recovered reproducibly from cells that received both pVSV1(+) and the N, P, and L support plasmids, but not in either of the two control transfections in which either pVSV1(+) or the VSV support plasmids were omitted (Table 2). The efficiency of recovery varied among different experiments, and was affected by the time of harvest, the temperature of incubation of the cells, and whether the genomic cDNA plasmid was linearized before transfection. Among the conditions tested, the highest level of recovery was 8×10⁴ pfu per ml in the 1.5 ml of medium from 10⁶ cells that had received 5μg of linearized pVSV1(+) and been incubated at 31° C. for 45 hours.

                  TABLE 3                                                          ______________________________________                                         Recovery of Infectious Virus from pVSV1(+)                                     VSV Plasmids Transfected                                                                       Virus Yield Virus Recovered in                                 Genomic Support     (pfu/ml)    X/Y transfections                              ______________________________________                                         pVSV1(+)                                                                               --          <10         0/8                                            --      N, P, L     <10         0/4                                            pVSV1(+)                                                                               N, P, L     <10 to 8 × 10.sup.4                                                                  9/12(a)                                        pVSV1(+)                                                                               N, P, L, M, G                                                                              <10 to 1 × 10.sup.2                                                                  1/6                                            pVSV1(-)                                                                               N, P, L     <10          0/27                                          pVSV1(-)                                                                               N, P, L, M, G                                                                              <10          0/12                                          ______________________________________                                    

The only source of the VSV G and M proteins in this experiment was via VSV-mediated transcription of the replicated genomic RNA. Indeed, when support plasmids that expressed the M and G proteins were included in the transfection mixture together with those that expressed N, P and L, under conditions that support the production of infectious VSV DI particles from a DI cDNA clone (Pattnaik, A. K. et al. (1992) Cell 69, 1011-1020), the recovery of infectious virus was strongly suppressed (Table 3), perhaps because VSV M protein can inhibit both viral and cellular transcription (Clinton, G. M. et al. (1978) Cell 15, 1455-1462; Black, B. L. et al. (1992) J. Virol. 66, 4058-4064).

Plasmid pVSV(-) which was designed to express a full-length negative-sense copy of the VSV genome, failed repeatedly to yield infectious virus, either when supported by the expression of N, P, and L proteins, or by the full complement of five VSV proteins (Table 3).

Neutralization of Recovered Virus by Anti-VSV Antiserum

The virus that yielded the plaques was identified as VSV because plaque-formation was completely inhibited by a mouse polyclonal anti-serum raised against purified wild-type VSV. However, since the transfected cells had been infected with the VV recombinant vTF7-3 to provide T7 RNA polymerase, the harvested culture medium also contained infectious VV. Plaque assays performed in the presence of anti-VSV anti-serum (and in the absence of ara-c) showed that under all conditions of transfection, VV titers of 1-2×10⁶ pfu per ml were released from the infected transfected cells. However, the VV plaques were less than one tenth the size of the VSV plaques, easily distinguished from them, and completely suppressed by ara-c which inhibits VV DNA replication.

RNA and Protein Synthesis Activities of Recovered VSV

To provide further evidence that the virus recovered from transfections of pVSV1(+) was VSV, the RNAs and proteins synthesized by this virus were compared with those made by authentic VSV. For RNA analysis the supernatant fluids harvested from primary transfections were amplified once in BHK21 cells in the presence of ara-c. The resultant supernatants were used to infect BHK21 cells which were exposed to ³ H!uridine in the presence of actinomycin-D from 3 to 6 hours post infection. Cytoplasmic extracts were prepared, RNAs were harvested, resolved by electrophoresis on 1.75% agarose-urea gels, and detected by fluorography. RNAs that comigrated with authentic VSV genomic RNA and the five mRNAs were synthesized following infection with samples harvested from transfections that received pVSV1(+) and three support plasmids, N, P and L. No VSV RNAs were detected following passage of supernatants from transfections that did not receive both pVSV1 (+) and the support plasmids.

Viral protein synthesis was monitored following the infection of BHK21 cells at an MOI of 5. Cells were starved for methionine for 30 minutes prior to incorporation of ³⁵ S!methionine from 1 hour post-infection for 5 hours. Cytoplasmic extracts were prepared and proteins were analyzed on a 10% polyacrylamide-SDS gel. Virus recovered from transfections of pVSV1 (+) displayed a protein profile that closely resembled those of the San Juan and Orsay strains of VSV Indiana. Furthermore the proteins that were specifically immunoprecipitated by a VSV specific antiserum (which reacts poorly with the VSV M and P proteins) were similar in the three cases, providing further evidence that the recovered virus was VSV. However there were minor differences in the mobility of the proteins from the recovered virus, M protein providing the clearest example. These different mobilities were characteristic of the proteins encoded by the support plasmids that had been used to construct pVSV1(+), and thus provided evidence that the genome of the recovered virus was derived from the cDNA clone.

VSV recovered from the cDNA clone Contained Characteristic Sequence Markers

During the construction of pVSV1 (+) several nucleotide sequence markers were introduced with the 5' terminal 516 nucleotides which originated from the cDNA clone of DI-T RNA (Pattnaik, A. K. et al. (1992) Cell 69, 1011-1020). To examine the nucleotide sequence of the 5' end of the genome of the recovered virus; RT-PCR was performed. RNA was purified from the recovered virus after 3 passages, and the region from nucleotide 11026 to the extreme 5' end of the genome (nucleotide 11161) was amplified, cloned and sequenced. In comparison to the published Indiana San Juan virus sequence the following nucleotide differences were noted; nucleotides G11038A, A11070C, and an insertion of an A residue at nucleotide 11140. These results revealed that the nucleotide sequence of this region of the genome of the recovered virus was identical to the cDNA clone, and hence that the recovered virus originated from pVSV1(+).

Genome Length Negative-Sense RNA Transcripts of VSV were not Synthesized efficiently by Bacteriophage T7 RNA Polymerase.

In marked contrast to our success in recovering infectious VSV from pVSV1(+), attempts to generate infectious virus from negative-sense RNA transcripts were uniformly unsuccessful (Table 3). This was surprising, because success with negative-sense T7 transcripts of DI-T RNA (Pattnaik, A. K. et al. (1992) Cell 69, 1011-1020; Pattnaik, A. K. et al. (1995) Virology 206, 760-764) and with several subgenomic replicons (Wertz, G. W. et al. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Scie. USA 91, 8587-8591) had suggested no inherent problems with this strategy. We therefore compared the ability of T7 RNA polymerase to synthesize genome length positive and negative-sense transcripts of VSV in vitro. pVSV(+) and pVSV1 (-) were linearized at the unique Nhe1 site and transcribed in vitro by T7 RNA polymerase in the presence of ³ H!UTP. The products were analyzed on 1% agarose-urea gels, and detected by fluorography. Whereas transcripts of pVSV1 (+) were predominantly genome length, the majority of T7 transcripts of pVSV1(-) were clearly smaller than the VSV RNA. Clearly this apparent inability of T7 RNA polymerase to synthesize full length negative-sense transcripts of VSV RNA could explain the lack of infectivity of pVSV1(-).

The natural signal for transcriptional termination by T7 RNA polymerase is a strong hairpin structure followed by 6 U residues in the nascent RNA (Rosenberg, A. H. et al. (1987) Gene 56, 125-135). A run of7 U residues exists at each ofthe intergenic junctions in the negative-strand of VSV RNA, and among the transcription products from pVSV1 (-) were four discrete RNAs of the appropriate size to represent the products of termination at the intergenic junctions. The behavior of T7 RNA polymerase when transcribing a VSV intergenic junction in the negative-sense, as compared with the positive-sense was investigated. The NP intergenic region was cloned in both the positive and negative orientation into transcription plasmids between the T7 promoter and the HDV ribozyme/T7 terminator cassettes. In vitro transcriptions were performed on each of these circular plasmids in the presence of ³ H!UTP and the RNA products were analyzed on a 1 % agarose-urea gel and detected by fluorography. Plasmid 8(+)NP, which generated positive-sense transcripts of the NP intergenic junction, gave the expected two RNAs that resulted form transcriptional termination at the T7 termination signal and the subsequent ribozyme mediated self cleavage to generate authentic VSV 3' termini. The smaller (200 nucleotides) product of self cleavage had run off this gel. In contrast the two plasmids 8(-)NP and 8(+)PN, that were designed to generate negative-sense transcripts of the NP intergenic junction, each yielded a major smaller RNA product in addition to the expected products of T7 termination and self-cleavage. The sizes of these smaller RNAs were consistent with termination at or very close to the NP intergenic junction, as shown by comparison with the size of the RNA made by run-off transcription from plasmid 8(+)PN linearized at the EcoRV site which is 7 nucleotides from the NP intergenic junction. These analyses show that T7 RNA polymerase terminated near the VSV NP intergenic junction when synthesizing a negative-sense RNA, but not when generating a positive-sense RNA transcript. Furthermore, the RNA products directed by pVSV1(-) suggest that similar termination occurred to a greater or lesser extent at the other intergenic junctions. The cumulative effect of this incomplete transcriptional termination by T7 RNA polymerase, at each intergenic junction in the negative-sense transcript, probably accounts for the difference in the RNAs transcribed in vitro from pVSV1(-) and pVSV1(+).

EQUIVALENTS

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents of the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.

    __________________________________________________________________________     SEQUENCE LISTING                                                               (1) GENERAL INFORMATION:                                                       (iii) NUMBER OF SEQUENCES: 2                                                   (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:1:                                               (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                                  (A) LENGTH: 6578 base pairs                                                    (B) TYPE: nucleic acid                                                         (C) STRANDEDNESS: single                                                       (D) TOPOLOGY: linear                                                           (ii) MOLECULE TYPE: cDNA                                                       (ix) FEATURE:                                                                  (A) NAME/KEY: CDS                                                              (B) LOCATION: 9..6504                                                          (xi) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:1:                                        GGGACAAAATGGATCCCATTATTAATGGAAATTCTGCTAATGTTTATCTAACCGATGGTT60                 ATTTAAAAGGTGTTATCTCTTTCTCAGAGTGTAATGCTTTAGGAAGTTACATATTCAATG120                GTCCTTATCTCAAAAATGATTATACCAACTTAATTAGTAGACAAAATCCATTAATAGAAC180                ACATGAATCTAAAGAAACTAAATATAACACAGTCCTTAATATCTAAGTATCATAAAGGTG240                AAATAAAATTAGAAGAACCTACTTATTTTCAGTCATTACTTATGACATACAAGAGTATGA300                CCTCGTCAGAACAGATTGCTACCACTAATTTACTTAAAAAGATAATAAGAAGAGCTATAG360                AAATAAGTGATGTCAAAGTCTATGCTATATTGAATAAACTAGGGCTTAAAGAAAAGGACA420                AGATTAAATCCAACAATGGACAAGATGAAGACAACTCAGTTATTACGACCATAATCAAAG480                ATGATATACTTTCAGCTGTTAAAGATAATCAATCTCATCTTAAAGCAGACAAAAATCACT540                CTACAAAACAAAAAGACACAATCAAAACAACACTCTTGAAGAAATTGATGTGTTCAATGC600                AACATCCTCCATCATGGTTAATACATTGGTTTAACTTATACACAAAATTAAACAACATAT660                TAACACAGTATCGATCAAATGAGGTAAAAAACCATGGGTTTACATTGATAGATAATCAAA720                CTCTTAGTGGATTTCAATTTATTTTGAACCAATATGGTTGTATAGTTTATCATAAGGAAC780                TCAAAAGAATTACTGTGACAACCTATAATCAATTCTTGACATGGAAAGATATTAGCCTTA840                GTAGATTAAATGTTTGTTTAATTACATGGATTAGTAACTGCTTGAACACATTAAATAAAA900                GCTTAGGCTTAAGATGCGGATTCAATAATGTTATCTTGACACAACTATTCCTTTATGGAG960                ATTGTATACTAAAGCTATTTCACAATGAGGGGTTCTACATAATAAAAGAGGTAGAGGGAT1020               TTATTATGTCTCTAATTTTAAATATAACAGAAGAAGATCAATTCAGAAAACGATTTTATA1080               ATAGTATGCTCAACAACATCACAGATGCTGCTAATAAAGCTCAGAAAAATCTGCTATCAA1140               GAGTATGTCATACATTATTAGATAAGACAGTGTCCGATAATATAATAAATGGCAGATGGA1200               TAATTCTATTAAGTAAGTTCCTTAAATTAATTAAGCTTGCAGGTGACAATAACCTTAACA1260               ATCTGAGTGAACTATATTTTTTGTTCAGAATATTTGGACACCCAATGGTAGATGAAAGAC1320               AAGCCATGGATGCTGTTAAAATTAATTGCAATGAGACCAAATTTTACTTGTTAAGCAGTC1380               TGAGTATGTTAAGAGGTGCCTTTATATATAGAATTATAAAAGGGTTTGTAAATAATTACA1440               ACAGATGGCCTACTTTAAGAAATGCTATTGTTTTACCCTTAAGATGGTTAACTTACTATA1500               AACTAAACACTTATCCTTCTTTGTTGGAACTTACAGAAAGAGATTTGATTGTGTTATCAG1560               GACTACGTTTCTATCGTGAGTTTCGGTTGCCTAAAAAAGTGGATCTTGAAATGATTATAA1620               ATGATAAAGCTATATCACCTCCTAAAAATTTGATATGGACTAGTTTCCCTAGAAATTACA1680               TGCCATCACACATACAAAACTATATAGAACATGAAAAATTAAAATTTTCCGAGAGTGATA1740               AATCAAGAAGAGTATTAGAGTATTATTTAAGAGATAACAAATTCAATGAATGTGATTTAT1800               ACAACTGTGTAGTTAATCAAAGTTATCTCAACAACCCTAATCATGTGGTATCATTGACAG1860               GCAAAGAAAGAGAACTCAGTGTAGGTAGAATGTTTGCAATGCAACCGGGAATGTTCAGAC1920               AGGTTCAAATATTGGCAGAGAAAATGATAGCTGAAAACATTTTACAATTCTTTCCTGAAA1980               GTCTTACAAGATATGGTGATCTAGAACTACAAAAAATATTAGAATTGAAAGCAGGAATAA2040               GTAACAAATCAAATCGCTACAATGATAATTACAACAATTACATTAGTAAGTGCTCTATCA2100               TCACAGATCTCAGCAAATTCAATCAAGCATTTCGATATGAAACGTCATGTATTTGTAGTG2160               ATGTGCTGGATGAACTGCATGGTGTACAATCTCTATTTTCCTGGTTACATTTAACTATTC2220               CTCATGTCACAATAATATGCACATATAGGCATGCACCCCCCTATATAGGAGATCATATTG2280               TAGATCTTAACAATGTAGATGAACAAAGTGGATTATATAGATATCACATGGGTGGCATCG2340               AAGGGTGGTGTCAAAAACTATGGACCATAGAAGCTATATCACTATTGGATCTAATATCTC2400               TCAAAGGGAAATTCTCAATTACTGCTTTAATTAATGGTGACAATCAATCAATAGATATAA2460               GCAAACCAATCAGACTCATGGAAGGTCAAACTCATGCTCAAGCAGATTATTTGCTAGCAT2520               TAAATAGCCTTAAATTACTGTATAAAGAGTATGCAGGCATAGGCCACAAATTAAAAGGAA2580               CTGAGACTTATATATCACGAGATATGCAATTTATGAGTAAAACAATTCAACATAACGGTG2640               TATATTACCCAGCTAGTATAAAGAAAGTCCTAAGAGTGGGACCGTGGATAAACACTATAC2700               TTGATGATTTCAAAGTGAGTCTAGAATCTATAGGTAGTTTGACACAAGAATTAGAATATA2760               GAGGTGAAAGTCTATTATGCAGTTTAATATTTAGAAATGTATGGTTATATAATCAGATTG2820               CTCTACAATTAAAAAATCATGCATTATGTAACAATAAACTATATTTGGACATATTAAAGG2880               TTCTGAAACACTTAAAAACCTTTTTTAATCTTGATAATATTGATACAGCATTAACATTGT2940               ATATGAATTTACCCATGTTATTTGGTGGTGGTGATCCCAACTTGTTATATCGAAGTTTCT3000               ATAGAAGAACTCCTGACTTCCTCACAGAGGCTATAGTTCACTCTGTGTTCATACTTAGTT3060               ATTATACAAACCATGACTTAAAAGATAAACTTCAAGATCTGTCAGATGATAGATTGAATA3120               AGTTCTTAACATGCATAATCACGTTTGACAAAGACCCTAATGCTGAATTCGTAACATTGA3180               TGAGAGATCCTCAAGCTTTAGGGTCTGAGAGACAAGCTAAAATTACTAGCGAAATCAATA3240               GACTGGCAGTTACAGAGGTTTTGAGTACAGCTCCAAACAAAATATTCTCCAAAAGTGCAC3300               AACATTATACTACTACAGAGATAGATCTAAATGATATTATGCAAAATATAGAACCTACAT3360               ATCCTCATGGGCTAAGAGTTGTTTATGAAAGTTTACCCTTTTATAAAGCAGAGAAAATAG3420               TAAATCTTATATCAGGTACAAAATCTATAACTAACATACTGGAAAAAACTTCTGCCATAG3480               ACTTAACAGATATTGATAGAGCCACTGAGATGATGAGGAAAAACATAACTTTGCTTATAA3540               GGATACTTCCATTGGATTGTAACAGAGATAAAAGAGAGATATTGAGTATGGAAAACCTAA3600               GTATTACTGAATTAAGCAAATATGTTAGGGAAAGATCTTGGTCTTTATCCAATATAGTTG3660               GTGTTACATCACCCAGTATCATGTATACAATGGACATCAAATATACTACAAGCACTATAT3720               CTAGTGGCATAATTATAGAGAAATATAATGTTAACAGTTTAACACGTGGTGAGAGAGGAC3780               CCACTAAACCATGGGTTGGTTCATCTACACAAGAGAAAAAAACAATGCCAGTTTATAATA3840               GACAAGTCTTAACCAAAAAACAGAGAGATCAAATAGATCTATTAGCAAAATTGGATTGGG3900               TGTATGCATCTATAGATAACAAGGATGAATTCATGGAAGAACTCAGCATAGGAACCCTTG3960               GGTTAACATATGAAAAGGCCAAGAAATTATTTCCACAATATTTAAGTGTCAATTATTTGC4020               ATCGCCTTACAGTCAGTAGTAGACCATGTGAATTCCCTGCATCAATACCAGCTTATAGAA4080               CAACAAATTATCACTTTGACACTAGCCCTATTAATCGCATATTAACAGAAAAGTATGGTG4140               ATGAAGATATTGACATAGTATTCCAAAACTGTATAAGCTTTGGCCTTAGTTTAATGTCAG4200               TAGTAGAACAATTTACTAATGTATGTCCTAACAGAATTATTCTCATACCTAAGCTTAATG4260               AGATACATTTGATGAAACCTCCCATATTCACAGGTGATGTTGATATTCACAAGTTAAAAC4320               AAGTGATACAAAAACAGCATATGTTTTTACCAGACAAAATAAGTTTGACTCAATATGTGG4380               AATTATTCTTAAGTAATAAAACACTCAAATCTGGATCTCATGTTAATTCTAATTTAATAT4440               TGGCACATAAAATATCTGACTATTTTCATAATACTTACATTTTAAGTACTAATTTAGCTG4500               GACATTGGATTCTGATTATACAACTTATGAAAGATTCTAAAGGTATTTTTGAAAAAGATT4560               GGGGAGAGGGATATATAACTGATCATATGTTTATTAATTTGAAAGTTTTCTTCAATGCTT4620               ATAAGACCTATCTCTTGTGTTTTCATAAAGGTTATGGCAAAGCAAAGCTGGAGTGTGATA4680               TGAACACTTCAGATCTTCTATGTGTATTGGAATTAATAGACAGTAGTTATTGGAAGTCTA4740               TGTCTAAGGTATTTTTAGAACAAAAAGTTATCAAATACATTCTTAGCCAAGATGCAAGTT4800               TACATAGAGTAAAAGGATGTCATAGCTTCAAATTATGGTTTCTTAAACGTCTTAATGTAG4860               CAGAATTCACAGTTTGCCCTTGGGTTGTTAACATAGATTATCATCCAACACATATGAAAG4920               CAATATTAACTTATATAGATCTTGTTAGAATGGGATTGATAAATATAGATAGAATACACA4980               TTAAAAATAAACACAAATTCAATGATGAATTTTATACTTCTAATCTCTTCTACATTAATT5040               ATAACTTCTCAGATAATACTCATCTATTAACTAAACATATAAGGATTGCTAATTCTGAAT5100               TAGAAAATAATTACAACAAATTATATCATCCTACACCAGAAACCCTAGAGAATATACTAG5160               CCAATCCGATTAAAAGTAATGACAAAAAGACACTGAATGACTATTGTATAGGTAAAAATG5220               TTGACTCAATAATGTTACCATTGTTATCTAATAAGAAGCTTATTAAATCGTCTGCAATGA5280               TTAGAACCAATTACAGCAAACAAGATTTGTATAATTTATTCCCTATGGTTGTGATTGATA5340               GAATTATAGATCATTCAGGCAATACAGCCAAATCCAACCAACTTTACACTACTACTTCCC5400               ACCAAATATCTTTAGTGCACAATAGCACATCACTTTACTGCATGCTTCCTTGGCATCATA5460               TTAATAGATTCAATTTTGTATTTAGTTCTACAGGTTGTAAAATTAGTATAGAGTATATTT5520               TAAAAGATCTTAAAATTAAAGATCCCAATTGTATAGCATTCATAGGTGAAGGAGCAGGGA5580               ATTTATTATTGCGTACAGTAGTGGAACTTCATCCTGACATAAGATATATTTACAGAAGTC5640               TGAAAGATTGCAATGATCATAGTTTACCTATTGAGTTTTTAAGGCTGTACAATGGACATA5700               TCAACATTGATTATGGTGAAAATTTGACCATTCCTGCTACAGATGCAACCAACAACATTC5760               ATTGGTCTTATTTACATATAAAGTTTGCTGAACCTATCAGTCTTTTTGTCTGTGATGCCG5820               AATTGTCTGTAACAGTCAACTGGAGTAAAATTATAATAGAATGGAGCAAGCATGTAAGAA5880               AGTGCAAGTACTGTTCCTCAGTTAATAAATGTATGTTAATAGTAAAATATCATGCTCAAG5940               ATGATATTGATTTCAAATTAGACAATATAACTATATTAAAAACTTATGTATGCTTAGGCA6000               GTAAGTTAAAGGGATCGGAGGTTTACTTAGTCCTTACAATAGGTCCTGCGAATATATTCC6060               CAGTATTTAATGTAGTACAAAATGCTAAATTGATACTATCAAGAACCAAAAATTTCATCA6120               TGCCTAAGAAAGCTGATAAAGAGTCTATTGATGCAAATATTAAAAGTTTGATACCCTTTC6180               TTTGTTACCCTATAACAAAAAAAGGAATTAATACTGCATTGTCAAAACTAAAGAGTGTTG6240               TTAGTGGAGATATACTATCATATTCTATAGCTGGACGTAATGAAGTTTTCAGCAATAAAC6300               TTATAAATCATAAGCATATGAACATCTTAAAATGGTTCAATCATGTTTTAAATTTCAGAT6360               CAACAGAACTAAACTATAACCATTTATATATGGTAGAATCTACATATCCTTACCTAAGTG6420               AATTGTTAAACAGCTTGACAACCAATGAACTTAAAAAACTGATTAAAATCACAGGTAGTC6480               TGTTATACAACTTTCATAATGAATAATGAATAAAGATCTTATAATAAAAATTCCCATAGC6540               TATACACTAACACTGTATTCAATTATAGTTATTAAAAA6578                                     (2) INFORMATION FOR SEQ ID NO:2:                                               (i) SEQUENCE CHARACTERISTICS:                                                  (A) LENGTH: 2165 amino acids                                                   (B) TYPE: amino acid                                                           (D) TOPOLOGY: linear                                                           (ii) MOLECULE TYPE: protein                                                    (xi) SEQUENCE DESCRIPTION: SEQ ID NO:2:                                        MetAspProIleIleAsnGlyAsnSerAlaAsnValTyrLeuThrAsp                               151015                                                                         GlyTyrLeuLysGlyValIleSerPheSerGluCysAsnAlaLeuGly                               202530                                                                         SerTyrIlePheAsnGlyProTyrLeuLysAsnAspTyrThrAsnLeu                               354045                                                                         IleSerArgGlnAsnProLeuIleGluHisMetAsnLeuLysLysLeu                               505560                                                                         AsnIleThrGlnSerLeuIleSerLysTyrHisLysGlyGluIleLys                               65707580                                                                       LeuGluGluProThrTyrPheGlnSerLeuLeuMetThrTyrLysSer                               859095                                                                         MetThrSerSerGluGlnIleAlaThrThrAsnLeuLeuLysLysIle                               100105110                                                                      IleArgArgAlaIleGluIleSerAspValLysValTyrAlaIleLeu                               115120125                                                                      AsnLysLeuGlyLeuLysGluLysAspLysIleLysSerAsnAsnGly                               130135140                                                                      GlnAspGluAspAsnSerValIleThrThrIleIleLysAspAspIle                               145150155160                                                                   LeuSerAlaValLysAspAsnGlnSerHisLeuLysAlaAspLysAsn                               165170175                                                                      HisSerThrLysGlnLysAspThrIleLysThrThrLeuLeuLysLys                               180185190                                                                      LeuMetCysSerMetGlnHisProProSerTrpLeuIleHisTrpPhe                               195200205                                                                      AsnLeuTyrThrLysLeuAsnAsnIleLeuThrGlnTyrArgSerAsn                               210215220                                                                      GluValLysAsnHisGlyPheThrLeuIleAspAsnGlnThrLeuSer                               225230235240                                                                   GlyPheGlnPheIleLeuAsnGlnTyrGlyCysIleValTyrHisLys                               245250255                                                                      GluLeuLysArgIleThrValThrThrTyrAsnGlnPheLeuThrTrp                               260265270                                                                      LysAspIleSerLeuSerArgLeuAsnValCysLeuIleThrTrpIle                               275280285                                                                      SerAsnCysLeuAsnThrLeuAsnLysSerLeuGlyLeuArgCysGly                               290295300                                                                      PheAsnAsnValIleLeuThrGlnLeuPheLeuTyrGlyAspCysIle                               305310315320                                                                   LeuLysLeuPheHisAsnGluGlyPheTyrIleIleLysGluValGlu                               325330335                                                                      GlyPheIleMetSerLeuIleLeuAsnIleThrGluGluAspGlnPhe                               340345350                                                                      ArgLysArgPheTyrAsnSerMetLeuAsnAsnIleThrAspAlaAla                               355360365                                                                      AsnLysAlaGlnLysAsnLeuLeuSerArgValCysHisThrLeuLeu                               370375380                                                                      AspLysThrValSerAspAsnIleIleAsnGlyArgTrpIleIleLeu                               385390395400                                                                   LeuSerLysPheLeuLysLeuIleLysLeuAlaGlyAspAsnAsnLeu                               405410415                                                                      AsnAsnLeuSerGluLeuTyrPheLeuPheArgIlePheGlyHisPro                               420425430                                                                      MetValAspGluArgGlnAlaMetAspAlaValLysIleAsnCysAsn                               435440445                                                                      GluThrLysPheTyrLeuLeuSerSerLeuSerMetLeuArgGlyAla                               450455460                                                                      PheIleTyrArgIleIleLysGlyPheValAsnAsnTyrAsnArgTrp                               465470475480                                                                   ProThrLeuArgAsnAlaIleValLeuProLeuArgTrpLeuThrTyr                               485490495                                                                      TyrLysLeuAsnThrTyrProSerLeuLeuGluLeuThrGluArgAsp                               500505510                                                                      LeuIleValLeuSerGlyLeuArgPheTyrArgGluPheArgLeuPro                               515520525                                                                      LysLysValAspLeuGluMetIleIleAsnAspLysAlaIleSerPro                               530535540                                                                      ProLysAsnLeuIleTrpThrSerPheProArgAsnTyrMetProSer                               545550555560                                                                   HisIleGlnAsnTyrIleGluHisGluLysLeuLysPheSerGluSer                               565570575                                                                      AspLysSerArgArgValLeuGluTyrTyrLeuArgAspAsnLysPhe                               580585590                                                                      AsnGluCysAspLeuTyrAsnCysValValAsnGlnSerTyrLeuAsn                               595600605                                                                      AsnProAsnHisValValSerLeuThrGlyLysGluArgGluLeuSer                               610615620                                                                      ValGlyArgMetPheAlaMetGlnProGlyMetPheArgGlnValGln                               625630635640                                                                   IleLeuAlaGluLysMetIleAlaGluAsnIleLeuGlnPhePhePro                               645650655                                                                      GluSerLeuThrArgTyrGlyAspLeuGluLeuGlnLysIleLeuGlu                               660665670                                                                      LeuLysAlaGlyIleSerAsnLysSerAsnArgTyrAsnAspAsnTyr                               675680685                                                                      AsnAsnTyrIleSerLysCysSerIleIleThrAspLeuSerLysPhe                               690695700                                                                      AsnGlnAlaPheArgTyrGluThrSerCysIleCysSerAspValLeu                               705710715720                                                                   AspGluLeuHisGlyValGlnSerLeuPheSerTrpLeuHisLeuThr                               725730735                                                                      IleProHisValThrIleIleCysThrTyrArgHisAlaProProTyr                               740745750                                                                      IleGlyAspHisIleValAspLeuAsnAsnValAspGluGlnSerGly                               755760765                                                                      LeuTyrArgTyrHisMetGlyGlyIleGluGlyTrpCysGlnLysLeu                               770775780                                                                      TrpThrIleGluAlaIleSerLeuLeuAspLeuIleSerLeuLysGly                               785790795800                                                                   LysPheSerIleThrAlaLeuIleAsnGlyAspAsnGlnSerIleAsp                               805810815                                                                      IleSerLysProIleArgLeuMetGluGlyGlnThrHisAlaGlnAla                               820825830                                                                      AspTyrLeuLeuAlaLeuAsnSerLeuLysLeuLeuTyrLysGluTyr                               835840845                                                                      AlaGlyIleGlyHisLysLeuLysGlyThrGluThrTyrIleSerArg                               850855860                                                                      AspMetGlnPheMetSerLysThrIleGlnHisAsnGlyValTyrTyr                               865870875880                                                                   ProAlaSerIleLysLysValLeuArgValGlyProTrpIleAsnThr                               885890895                                                                      IleLeuAspAspPheLysValSerLeuGluSerIleGlySerLeuThr                               900905910                                                                      GlnGluLeuGluTyrArgGlyGluSerLeuLeuCysSerLeuIlePhe                               915920925                                                                      ArgAsnValTrpLeuTyrAsnGlnIleAlaLeuGlnLeuLysAsnHis                               930935940                                                                      AlaLeuCysAsnAsnLysLeuTyrLeuAspIleLeuLysValLeuLys                               945950955960                                                                   HisLeuLysThrPhePheAsnLeuAspAsnIleAspThrAlaLeuThr                               965970975                                                                      LeuTyrMetAsnLeuProMetLeuPheGlyGlyGlyAspProAsnLeu                               980985990                                                                      LeuTyrArgSerPheTyrArgArgThrProAspPheLeuThrGluAla                               99510001005                                                                    IleValHisSerValPheIleLeuSerTyrTyrThrAsnHisAspLeu                               101010151020                                                                   LysAspLysLeuGlnAspLeuSerAspAspArgLeuAsnLysPheLeu                               1025103010351040                                                               ThrCysIleIleThrPheAspLysAspProAsnAlaGluPheValThr                               104510501055                                                                   LeuMetArgAspProGlnAlaLeuGlySerGluArgGlnAlaLysIle                               106010651070                                                                   ThrSerGluIleAsnArgLeuAlaValThrGluValLeuSerThrAla                               107510801085                                                                   ProAsnLysIlePheSerLysSerAlaGlnHisTyrThrThrThrGlu                               109010951100                                                                   IleAspLeuAsnAspIleMetGlnAsnIleGluProThrTyrProHis                               1105111011151120                                                               GlyLeuArgValValTyrGluSerLeuProPheTyrLysAlaGluLys                               112511301135                                                                   IleValAsnLeuIleSerGlyThrLysSerIleThrAsnIleLeuGlu                               114011451150                                                                   LysThrSerAlaIleAspLeuThrAspIleAspArgAlaThrGluMet                               115511601165                                                                   MetArgLysAsnIleThrLeuLeuIleArgIleLeuProLeuAspCys                               117011751180                                                                   AsnArgAspLysArgGluIleLeuSerMetGluAsnLeuSerIleThr                               1185119011951200                                                               GluLeuSerLysTyrValArgGluArgSerTrpSerLeuSerAsnIle                               120512101215                                                                   ValGlyValThrSerProSerIleMetTyrThrMetAspIleLysTyr                               122012251230                                                                   ThrThrSerThrIleSerSerGlyIleIleIleGluLysTyrAsnVal                               123512401245                                                                   AsnSerLeuThrArgGlyGluArgGlyProThrLysProTrpValGly                               125012551260                                                                   SerSerThrGlnGluLysLysThrMetProValTyrAsnArgGlnVal                               1265127012751280                                                               LeuThrLysLysGlnArgAspGlnIleAspLeuLeuAlaLysLeuAsp                               128512901295                                                                   TrpValTyrAlaSerIleAspAsnLysAspGluPheMetGluGluLeu                               130013051310                                                                   SerIleGlyThrLeuGlyLeuThrTyrGluLysAlaLysLysLeuPhe                               131513201325                                                                   ProGlnTyrLeuSerValAsnTyrLeuHisArgLeuThrValSerSer                               133013351340                                                                   ArgProCysGluPheProAlaSerIleProAlaTyrArgThrThrAsn                               1345135013551360                                                               TyrHisPheAspThrSerProIleAsnArgIleLeuThrGluLysTyr                               136513701375                                                                   GlyAspGluAspIleAspIleValPheGlnAsnCysIleSerPheGly                               138013851390                                                                   LeuSerLeuMetSerValValGluGlnPheThrAsnValCysProAsn                               139514001405                                                                   ArgIleIleLeuIleProLysLeuAsnGluIleHisLeuMetLysPro                               141014151420                                                                   ProIlePheThrGlyAspValAspIleHisLysLeuLysGlnValIle                               1425143014351440                                                               GlnLysGlnHisMetPheLeuProAspLysIleSerLeuThrGlnTyr                               144514501455                                                                   ValGluLeuPheLeuSerAsnLysThrLeuLysSerGlySerHisVal                               146014651470                                                                   AsnSerAsnLeuIleLeuAlaHisLysIleSerAspTyrPheHisAsn                               147514801485                                                                   ThrTyrIleLeuSerThrAsnLeuAlaGlyHisTrpIleLeuIleIle                               149014951500                                                                   GlnLeuMetLysAspSerLysGlyIlePheGluLysAspTrpGlyGlu                               1505151015151520                                                               GlyTyrIleThrAspHisMetPheIleAsnLeuLysValPhePheAsn                               152515301535                                                                   AlaTyrLysThrTyrLeuLeuCysPheHisLysGlyTyrGlyLysAla                               154015451550                                                                   LysLeuGluCysAspMetAsnThrSerAspLeuLeuCysValLeuGlu                               155515601565                                                                   LeuIleAspSerSerTyrTrpLysSerMetSerLysValPheLeuGlu                               157015751580                                                                   GlnLysValIleLysTyrIleLeuSerGlnAspAlaSerLeuHisArg                               1585159015951600                                                               ValLysGlyCysHisSerPheLysLeuTrpPheLeuLysArgLeuAsn                               160516101615                                                                   ValAlaGluPheThrValCysProTrpValValAsnIleAspTyrHis                               162016251630                                                                   ProThrHisMetLysAlaIleLeuThrTyrIleAspLeuValArgMet                               163516401645                                                                   GlyLeuIleAsnIleAspArgIleHisIleLysAsnLysHisLysPhe                               165016551660                                                                   AsnAspGluPheTyrThrSerAsnLeuPheTyrIleAsnTyrAsnPhe                               1665167016751680                                                               SerAspAsnThrHisLeuLeuThrLysHisIleArgIleAlaAsnSer                               168516901695                                                                   GluLeuGluAsnAsnTyrAsnLysLeuTyrHisProThrProGluThr                               170017051710                                                                   LeuGluAsnIleLeuAlaAsnProIleLysSerAsnAspLysLysThr                               171517201725                                                                   LeuAsnAspTyrCysIleGlyLysAsnValAspSerIleMetLeuPro                               173017351740                                                                   LeuLeuSerAsnLysLysLeuIleLysSerSerAlaMetIleArgThr                               1745175017551760                                                               AsnTyrSerLysGlnAspLeuTyrAsnLeuPheProMetValValIle                               176517701775                                                                   AspArgIleIleAspHisSerGlyAsnThrAlaLysSerAsnGlnLeu                               178017851790                                                                   TyrThrThrThrSerHisGlnIleSerLeuValHisAsnSerThrSer                               179518001805                                                                   LeuTyrCysMetLeuProTrpHisHisIleAsnArgPheAsnPheVal                               181018151820                                                                   PheSerSerThrGlyCysLysIleSerIleGluTyrIleLeuLysAsp                               1825183018351840                                                               LeuLysIleLysAspProAsnCysIleAlaPheIleGlyGluGlyAla                               184518501855                                                                   GlyAsnLeuLeuLeuArgThrValValGluLeuHisProAspIleArg                               186018651870                                                                   TyrIleTyrArgSerLeuLysAspCysAsnAspHisSerLeuProIle                               187518801885                                                                   GluPheLeuArgLeuTyrAsnGlyHisIleAsnIleAspTyrGlyGlu                               189018951900                                                                   AsnLeuThrIleProAlaThrAspAlaThrAsnAsnIleHisTrpSer                               1905191019151920                                                               TyrLeuHisIleLysPheAlaGluProIleSerLeuPheValCysAsp                               192519301935                                                                   AlaGluLeuSerValThrValAsnTrpSerLysIleIleIleGluTrp                               194019451950                                                                   SerLysHisValArgLysCysLysTyrCysSerSerValAsnLysCys                               195519601965                                                                   MetLeuIleValLysTyrHisAlaGlnAspAspIleAspPheLysLeu                               197019751980                                                                   AspAsnIleThrIleLeuLysThrTyrValCysLeuGlySerLysLeu                               1985199019952000                                                               LysGlySerGluValTyrLeuValLeuThrIleGlyProAlaAsnIle                               200520102015                                                                   PheProValPheAsnValValGlnAsnAlaLysLeuIleLeuSerArg                               202020252030                                                                   ThrLysAsnPheIleMetProLysLysAlaAspLysGluSerIleAsp                               203520402045                                                                   AlaAsnIleLysSerLeuIleProPheLeuCysTyrProIleThrLys                               205020552060                                                                   LysGlyIleAsnThrAlaLeuSerLysLeuLysSerValValSerGly                               2065207020752080                                                               AspIleLeuSerTyrSerIleAlaGlyArgAsnGluValPheSerAsn                               208520902095                                                                   LysLeuIleAsnHisLysHisMetAsnIleLeuLysTrpPheAsnHis                               210021052110                                                                   ValLeuAsnPheArgSerThrGluLeuAsnTyrAsnHisLeuTyrMet                               211521202125                                                                   ValGluSerThrTyrProTyrLeuSerGluLeuLeuAsnSerLeuThr                               213021352140                                                                   ThrAsnGluLeuLysLysLeuIleLysIleThrGlySerLeuLeuTyr                               2145215021552160                                                               AsnPheHisAsnGlu                                                                2165                                                                           __________________________________________________________________________ 

We claim:
 1. A pure, recombinant, replicating and spreading non-segmented RNA virus particle, comprising: 1) a functional non-segmented RNA dependent RNA polymerase (L); 2) a non-segmented virus phosphoprotein (P); 3) a non-segmented nucleocapsid (N); 4) non-segmented virus structural protein; 5) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence; 6) a 3' to 5' RNA coding sequence, which encodes the non-segmented L, P, N and non-segmented virus structural proteins required for assembly of budded infectious particles and includes a heterologous gene (X), wherein said heterologous gene (X) is inserted at a naturally occurring intergenic junction, and 7) a 5' non-coding RNA sequence, wherein components 1 thru 7 are from the same type of non-segmented RNA virus, and wherein the non-segmented RNA virus is selected from the group consisting of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vesicular stomatitus virus (VSV).
 2. A virus particle of claim 1, wherein the non-segmented RNA virus is a respiratory syncytial virus.
 3. A virus particle of claim 2, wherein the respiratory syncytial virus is a human respiratory syncytial virus.
 4. A virus particle of claim 2, wherein the respiratory syncytial virus particle is a bovine respiratory syncytial virus.
 5. A virus particle of claim 1, wherein the non-segmented RNA virus is vesicular stomatitus virus (VSV).
 6. A pure, recombinant, replicating and non-spreading non-segmented RNA virus particle, comprising: 1) a functional non-segmented virus RNA dependent RNA polymerase (L); 2) a non-segmented virus phosphoprotein (P); 3) a non-segmented virus nucleocapsid (N); 4) non-segmented virus structural protein; 5) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence; 6) a 3' to 5' RNA coding sequence, which encodes said non-segmented virus L, P, N, but no non-segmented virus structural proteins required for assembly of budded infectious particles and includes a heterologous gene (X), wherein said heterologous gene (X) is inserted at a naturally occurring intergenic junction, and 7) a 5' non-coding RNA sequence, wherein components 1 thru 7 are from the same type of non-segmented RNA virus, and wherein the non-segmented RNA virus is selected from the group consisting of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vesicular stomatitus virus (VSV).
 7. A virus particle of claim 6, wherein the non-segmented RNA virus is a respiratory syncytial virus.
 8. A virus particle of claim 7, wherein the respiratory syncytial virus is a human respiratory syncytial virus.
 9. A virus particle of claim 7, wherein the respiratory syncytial virus particle is a bovine respiratory syncytial virus.
 10. A virus particle of claim 6, wherein the non-segmented RNA virus is vesicular stomatitis virus.
 11. A pure, recombinant, non-segmented RNA virus transcribing particle, comprising: 1) a functional non-segmented virus RNA dependent RNA polymerase (L); 2) a non-segmented virus phosphoprotein (P); 3) a non-segmented virus nucleocapsid (N); 4) non-segmented virus structural protein; 5) a 3' non-coding RNA sequence; 6) a 3' to 5' RNA coding region, which contains an appropriate transcription initiation sequence and a heterologous gene (X), wherein said heterologous gene (X) is inserted at a naturally occurring intergenic junction and 7) a 5' non-coding RNA sequence, wherein components 1 thru 7 are from the same type of segmented RNA virus, and wherein the non-segmented RNA virus is selected from the group sting of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vesicular stomatitus virus (VSV).
 12. A virus particle of claim 11, wherein the non-segmented virus is a respiratory syncytial virus.
 13. A virus particle of claim 12, wherein the respiratory syncytial virus particle is a bovine respiratory syncytial virus.
 14. A virus particle of claim 13, wherein the non-segmented virus is a rhabdovirus.
 15. A virus particle of claim 11, wherein the non-segmented RNA s is vesicular stomatitis virus. 